Love withdrawal use by toddlers: Multi-informant associations with aggression and parents' use of love withdrawal.

Love withdrawal is a form of interpersonal manipulation that shares many features with relational aggression; its use by children has not been examined. Guided by social learning theory, we sought to investigate the prevalence of toddlers' use of love withdrawal toward caregivers (parents and teachers) and further investigate how this behavior was associated with relational and physical aggression and parents' use of love withdrawal. These aims were examined using parent and teacher reports in a sample of 198 toddlers (Mage = 33.62 months; SD = 5.00 months; 50.5% girls). We found that most toddlers used love withdrawal directed at parents (79.2%) and teachers (72.1%) when angry and displayed this type of behavior more than relational and physical aggression. Accounting for household income, hours per week in childcare, and child age in months, as well as classroom clustering, we found that relational aggression, and not physical aggression, predicted the use of love withdrawal by toddlers (teacher reports), and that the associations were stronger for love withdrawal and relational aggression than for physical aggression. We also found that parents' use of love withdrawal toward their child was correlated with their reports of their child's use of love withdrawal, but not with their child's use of aggression. These results highlight the importance of considering the use of love withdrawal by children given its association with aggression which is linked to poorer psychosocial functioning.

Stress-related cellular pathophysiology as a crosstalk risk factor for neurocognitive and psychiatric disorders.

In this narrative review, we examine biological processes linking psychological stress and cognition, with a focus on how psychological stress can activate multiple neurobiological mechanisms that drive cognitive decline and behavioral change. First, we describe the general neurobiology of the stress response to define neurocognitive stress reactivity. Second, we review aspects of epigenetic regulation, synaptic transmission, sex hormones, photoperiodic plasticity, and psychoneuroimmunological processes that can contribute to cognitive decline and neuropsychiatric conditions. Third, we explain mechanistic processes linking the stress response and neuropathology. Fourth, we discuss molecular nuances such as an interplay between kinases and proteins, as well as differential role of sex hormones, that can increase vulnerability to cognitive and emotional dysregulation following stress. Finally, we explicate several testable hypotheses for stress, neurocognitive, and neuropsychiatric research. Together, this work highlights how stress processes alter neurophysiology on multiple levels to increase individuals' risk for neurocognitive and psychiatric disorders, and points toward novel therapeutic targets for mitigating these effects. The resulting models can thus advance dementia and mental health research, and translational neuroscience, with an eye toward clinical application in cognitive and behavioral neurology, and psychiatry.

Disentangling global and domain-level adaptive behavior trajectories among children with autism spectrum disorder.

BACKGROUND: Heterogeneity in adaptive behavior abilities among people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is expressed not only as uneven levels of impairment across domains, but also in the developmental trajectories of adaptive skills. We studied the question of whether, after accounting for global adaptive behavior development, we find evidence of heterogeneity in the trajectories of specific domains of adaptive behavior. METHODS: A sample of 504 children with ASD was obtained by combining data from two independent natural history studies conducted in North America. We used a factor of curves model to explain growth between 36 and 138 months in Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (VABS) age equivalents as a function of domain-specific and global growth processes. RESULTS: The domain-specific trajectories in all three domains (Communication, Daily Living Skills, and Socialization) reflected impairment relative to age expectations as well as slower-than-expected growth with age, and the parameters of these trajectories were moderately-to-strongly correlated across domains. The global adaptive behavior trajectory had an initial (36-41 months of age) developmental level of about 22 age-equivalent months, and eventually slowed after initially increasing by about 6 months each year. The global trajectory accounted for the majority of variance in the domain-level processes; however, additional variance remained (14%-38%) in the domain-level intercepts, slopes, and quadratic processes. CONCLUSIONS: These results extend existing theoretical and empirical support for the hierarchical structure of adaptive behavior to include its development over time in clinical samples of children with ASD. A latent global trajectory may be sufficient to describe the growth of adaptive behavior in children with ASD; however, the remaining domain-specific variability after accounting for global adaptive behavior development allows for the possibility that differential effects of intervention on specific domains may be possible and detectable.

Continuity of trajectories of autism symptom severity from infancy to childhood.

BACKGROUND: Behavioral symptom trajectories are informative of the development of young children at increased likelihood for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). METHODS: Developmental trajectories of early signs were examined in a cohort of siblings of children diagnosed with ASD (n = 502) from 6 to 18 months using the Autism Observation Scale for Infants (AOSI), and from 18 months to 5-7 years using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). Diagnostic outcomes for ASD at age 3 confirmed diagnosis for 137 children. We further analyzed the conditional probability of a switch from a trajectory measured with the AOSI to a trajectory measured with the ADOS as well as predictors from age 6 months. RESULTS: We derived three early trajectories of behavioral signs ("Low," "Intermediate," and "Increasing") from 6 to 18 months using the AOSI. We then derived three similar, distinct trajectories for the evolution of symptom severity between 18 and 60-84 months of age (Low, Intermediate, Increasing) using the ADOS. Globally, the Low trajectory included children showing fewer ASD signs or symptoms and the Increasing trajectory included children showing more severe symptoms. We also found that most children in the Low AOSI trajectory stayed in the corresponding ADOS trajectory, whereas children in an Increasing AOSI trajectory tended to transition to an Intermediate or Increasing ADOS trajectory. Developmental measures taken at 6 months (early signs of ASD, Fine Motor, and Visual Reception skills) were predictive of trajectory membership. CONCLUSIONS: Results confirm substantial heterogeneity in the early emergence of ASD signs in children at increased likelihood for ASD. Moreover, we showed that the way those early behavioral signs emerge in infants is predictive of later symptomatology. Results yield clear clinical implications, supporting the need to repeatedly assess infants at increased likelihood for ASD as this can be highly indicative of their later development and behavior.

Indirect aggression, anxiety, and empathy: Disaggregating between and within person longitudinal associations during childhood and adolescence.

Although indirectly aggressive behavior and anxiety symptoms can co-occur, it is unclear whether anxiety is an antecedent or outcome of indirect aggression at the individual level and whether other personality traits can contribute to these longitudinal associations. Therefore, the between- and within-person associations among indirect aggression, anxiety symptoms, and empathic concern were examined across adolescence from ages 11 to 16 in a cohort of individuals followed annually (N = 700; 52.9% girls; 76.0% White) controlling for direct aggression and demographic variables. Results of autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals supported an acting out model at the within-person level. Specifically, anxiety symptoms positively predicted indirect aggression and indirect aggression negatively predicted empathic concern at each adjacent time point. These findings suggest that methods of reducing worries about the self and increasing healthy self-confidence could prevent indirect aggression and help build concern and compassion toward others.

Trajectories, comorbidity, and risk factors for adolescent disordered eating and borderline personality disorder features.

PURPOSE: Borderline personality disorder (BPD) and eating disorders are highly comorbid, but the shared course of symptoms and associated risks remain poorly understood. The aim of this study was to examine joint symptom trajectories, temporal precedence, risk factors, and population attributable fractions (PAFs) in a community sample of adolescents, using a developmental psychopathology and psychosocial framework. METHODS: Across five years (age 14-18 years), adolescents (n = 544, 56% girls) reported on BPD features and disordered eating behavior. Sociodemographic, interpersonal, and clinical risks were assessed in childhood (age 10-13 years). We used a person-centered approach to examine latent class growth analyses, joint trajectory models, and calculated PAFs. RESULTS: Three-class solutions were found for both disordered eating and BPD features (low, moderate, high), creating nine joint trajectories. High levels of disordered eating were a stronger indicator of high levels of BPD features than was the reverse. Girls and LGBTQ+ youth were most likely to be in a high symptom trajectory. Bullying perpetration and clinical hyperactivity were unique risks for BPD features. Bullying victimization contributed the largest PAF to disordered eating and BPD features. CONCLUSION: We identified several novel and clinically relevant findings related to temporality, risks, screening, and the treatment of adolescent eating problems and BPD.

Longitudinal associations between early childhood irritability and adolescent depression symptoms in autistic children are mediated by peer relationships but not educational engagement.

In the general population, irritability is associated with later depression. Despite irritability being more prevalent in autistic children, the long-term sequelae are not well explored. We tested whether irritability in early childhood predicted depression symptoms in autistic adolescents, and whether associations could be explained by difficulties in peer relationships and lower educational engagement. Analyses tested the longitudinal associations between early childhood irritability (ages 3-5) and adolescent depression symptoms (age 14) in a prospective inception cohort of autistic children (N = 390), followed from early in development shortly after they received a clinical diagnosis. Mediators were measured in mid-childhood (age 10) by a combination of measures, from which latent factors for peer relationships and educational engagement were estimated. Results showed early childhood irritability was positively associated with adolescent depression symptoms, and this association remained when adjusting for baseline depression. A significant indirect pathway through peer relationships was found, which accounted for around 13% of the association between early childhood irritability and adolescent depression, suggesting peer problems may partially mediate the association between irritability and later depression. No mediation effects were found for education engagement. Results highlight the importance of early screening and intervention for co-occurring irritability and peer problems in young autistic children.

Developmental cascades between insistence on sameness behaviour and anxiety symptoms in autism spectrum disorder.

Autistic children experience high rates of anxiety. Insistence on sameness behaviour (IS) is a core feature of autism that appears correlated with anxiety severity. The objective of this study was to examine the longitudinal relations between anxiety and IS in autistic children using a developmental cascade model. A longitudinal cohort of 421 autistic children was followed between 4 and 11 years of age. Anxiety was quantified using items from the Anxiety Problems subscale of the Child Behavior Checklist; sameness behaviours were measured using the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised, Ritualistic/sameness subscale (both parent-report measures). Structural equation modelling was used to examine the longitudinal and directional associations between anxiety and IS at four time-points, through cross-lagged panel models (CLPM) with and without a random-intercepts component (RI-CLPM). Both the CLPM and the RI-CLPM had good fit. Significant directional associations were detected whereby elevated or increasing IS preceded elevated or increasing anxiety symptoms 1-2 years later, respectively. Stable baseline tendencies towards anxiety and IS as between-person traits (intercepts) were strongly associated (standardized estimate = 0.69, p < 0.001). The magnitude of the cross-sectional associations between anxiety and IS appeared to lessen with age. IS and anxiety symptoms in autism are closely related. They appear to be shared traits that mirror each other particularly in younger children. Increasing IS may be a sign of emerging future anxiety. Interventions that target IS to reduce or prevent anxiety amongst school-aged autistic children merit further study.

Bullying involvement and the transition to high school: A brief report.

School transitions are common educational experiences for children and adolescents and many of them worry about being bullied during this type of major life-changing point. In a sample of 701 Canadians assessed yearly from grade 5 (age 10) to grade 12 (age 18), we examined heterogeneous patterns of bullying involvement while statistically accounting for the transition into high school. Gender differences were also examined. Results indicated that on average, bullying victimization declined over time with a significant drop noted between grade 8 and grade 9 (the transition into high school), with few differences between girls and boys. Bullying perpetration also declined for most students (no gender differences), with a notable drop found at the transition into high school. However, for a subset of adolescents, the transition into high school was accompanied by an increase in bullying perpetration. These varied experiences highlight the need to model heterogeneity when examining the impact of school transitions on bullying, a neglected focus of inquiry to date. Our results suggest that moving into high school is beneficial for most adolescents involved in bullying, but not for all.

Predictors of language regression and its association with subsequent communication development in children with autism.

BACKGROUND: Language regression, broadly defined as the loss of acquired language skills in early childhood, is a distinctive feature of autism. Little is known about the factors underlying regression or the prognosis of children who exhibit regression. We examine potential predictors of language regression and test its association with language development in a prospective longitudinal sample of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) from diagnosis to age 10 years. METHODS: We analysed data from Pathways in ASD, a prospective longitudinal study of 421 children enrolled around the time of an autism diagnosis between 2 and 5 years. Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised data were available for 408 children, of whom 90 (22%) were classified as having language regression. RESULTS: Demographic and other health factors including caregiver education, family income, child sex, reported seizures, and age of enrolment did not differ between children with and without language regression. Children with language regression walked earlier and attained first words sooner than those without regression. However, both groups attained phrase speech at comparable ages. Those with regression exhibited greater delays in expressive and receptive communication over the follow-up period, although this effect was attenuated when accounting for baseline differences in motor and cognitive ability. Overall, those with language regression continued to exhibit expressive but not receptive communication delay compared to those without regression. Communication trajectories were heterogeneous to age 10 years, irrespective of regression status. CONCLUSIONS: Although language regression can be alarming, our findings confirm that its occurrence does not necessarily foreshadow worse developmental outcomes relative to those without regression. Although a discrepancy in age-equivalent communication skills may persist, this can be expected to be of less practical importance with rising average levels of skills. Future studies need to account for the significant variability in language trajectories by considering factors beyond developmental regression.

Middle-childhood executive functioning mediates associations between early-childhood autism symptoms and adolescent mental health, academic and functional outcomes in autistic children.

BACKGROUND: Executive functioning (EF) varies in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and is associated with clinical symptoms, academic, and adaptive functioning. Here, we examined whether middle-childhood EF mediates associations between early-childhood autism symptoms and adolescent outcomes in children with ASD. METHODS: The Pathways in ASD Cohort comprising children recruited at the time of ASD diagnosis (at 2-4 years-of-age) and followed prospectively across eight subsequent timepoints over ~10 years was used. A subset of Pathways participants (n = 250) with Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF)-Parent Form data from at least one timepoint when participants were school-aged was analyzed. A mediation framework was used to examine whether BRIEF-measured EF across age 7-10 years (middle-childhood) mediated associations between early-childhood autism symptoms (measured using the parent-report Social Responsiveness Scale across age 2-6 years) and clinical, academic, and functional outcomes, indexed at age >10-11.8 years (early-adolescence) using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)-Internalizing and Externalizing Scales, Academic Performance from the Teacher's Report Form, and Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Models were rerun substituting clinician-rated and teacher-rated measures, where possible. RESULTS: Mediation models indicated a significant indirect effect of middle-childhood EF on associations between early-childhood autism symptoms and externalizing behavior, academic performance, or adaptive functioning in early adolescence; kappa squared (κ2 ) effect sizes ranged from large to small. Model findings were stable across raters. Middle-childhood EF did not mediate associations between early-childhood autism symptoms and adolescent internalizing behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Among children with an ASD diagnosis, middle-childhood EF may be one pathway through which early-childhood autism symptoms influence a variety of outcomes in early-adolescence. An experimental study targeting middle-childhood EF to improve adolescent academic, emotional/behavioral, and adaptive functioning is needed to evaluate the clinical meaningfulness of these findings.

Precursors of self-regulation in infants at elevated likelihood for autism spectrum disorder.

Research concerning temperament in children and adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has suggested a consistent profile of low positive affect, high negative affect, and low regulation (Visser et al., 2016). One area receiving less attention is individual differences among children diagnosed with ASD. The primary objective of this study was to use a person-centered approach to explore heterogeneity of early temperament precursors of regulation in a large sample of infants with elevated familial likelihood of ASD. Early precursors of regulation included temperament assessed at 6, 12, and 24 months whereas outcome measures were diagnosis of ASD, cognitive ability and adaptive behavior at 36 months. Participants included 176 low-likelihood and 473 elevated-likelihood infants, 129 of whom were diagnosed with ASD at 3 years. Results supported a three-profile solution: a well-regulated profile (high positive affect and high attentional focus and shifting), a low attention focus profile (higher attentional shifting compared to attentional focus), and a low attention shifting profile (higher attentional focus compared to attentional shifting). A higher proportion of children diagnosed with ASD were classified into the low attention shifting profile. Furthermore, children with the well-regulated profile were differentiated from the other profiles by a pattern of higher social competence and lower dysregulation whereas children with the low attention focus profile were distinguished from the other profiles by higher cognitive ability at 3 years. The findings indicate that the combination of early positive affect with attention measures may provide an enhanced tool for prediction of self-regulation and later outcomes.

Elevated social anxiety symptoms across childhood and adolescence predict adult mental disorders and cannabis use.

AIM: We assessed the heterogeneous development of self-reported social anxiety symptoms across childhood and adolescence (ages 10 to 18; N = 701) and examined whether these groups predicted clinically derived diagnoses of social anxiety disorder (SAD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), depressive episodes, panic disorder (PD), agoraphobia, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), and substance use in adulthood (ages 19 to 22). RESULTS: Three distinct social anxiety symptom trajectories were found: a high increasing group (15.5%), a moderate group (37.3%), and a low group (47.2%). The high increasing and moderate trajectory groups were differentiated from the low trajectory group on the adult mental disorders examined: SAD (high OR = 15.74; moderate OR = 11.72), GAD (high OR = 13.08; moderate OR = 8.98), depressive episode (high OR = 19.75), PD (high OR = 8.43; moderate OR = 5.90), agoraphobia (high OR = 16.39; moderate OR = 9.68), and OCD (high OR = 3.49; moderate OR = 2.98). The high and moderate groups were not differentiated on SAD, GAD, PD, or OCD but were differentiated on depressive episodes (OR = 3.24). Relative to the low and moderate trajectory groups, the high increasing social anxiety symptoms trajectory group also predicted cannabis use, but not alcohol use in adulthood. Gender, ethnicity, household income, and parental education were accounted for when predicting adult outcomes. CONCLUSION: These results highlight the importance of early treatment of symptoms of childhood social anxiety in the prevention of mental health problems in adulthood.

Behavioral and physiological differences during an emotion-evoking task in children at increased likelihood for autism spectrum disorder.

Literature examining emotional regulation in infants with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has focused on parent report. We examined behavioral and physiological responses during an emotion-evoking task designed to elicit emotional states in infants. Infants at an increased likelihood for ASD (IL; have an older sibling with ASD; 96 not classified; 29 classified with ASD at age two) and low likelihood (LL; no family history of ASD; n = 61) completed the task at 6, 12, and 18 months. The main findings were (1) the IL-ASD group displayed higher levels of negative affect during toy removal and negative tasks compared to the IL non-ASD and LL groups, respectively, (2) the IL-ASD group spent more time looking at the baseline task compared to the other two groups, and (3) the IL-ASD group showed a greater increase in heart rate from baseline during the toy removal and negative tasks compared to the LL group. These results suggest that IL children who are classified as ASD at 24 months show differences in affect, gaze, and heart rate during an emotion-evoking task, with potential implications for understanding mechanisms related to emerging ASD.

Childhood Predictors of Adolescent Joint Trajectories: A Multi-Informant Study on Bullying Perpetration and Hypercompetitiveness.

OBJECTIVE: Bullying perpetration has been proposed to be a strategic behavior used by adolescents to compete for social resources, yet the co-development of bullying perpetration and trait hypercompetitiveness is understudied. The joint developmental trajectories of self-rated bullying perpetration and parent-rated hypercompetitiveness were investigated in a sample of adolescents and childhood social, emotional, and physical predictors were explored. METHOD: In a sample of 607 adolescents (Mage = 13.02 years in Grade 7 [SD = 0.38]; 54.4% girls; 76.4% White) self-rated bullying perpetration and parent-rated hypercompetitiveness were assessed across six years of development (Grades 7 to 12). Childhood (i.e., Grades 5 and 6) social, emotional, and physical predictors of trajectory group membership were also examined. RESULTS: Using latent class growth analyses, the three expected joint trajectory groups of primary interest were found: (1) a pattern of moderate stable bullying perpetration and high increasing hypercompetitiveness (high-risk group), (2) a pattern of low decreasing bullying and high increasing hypercompetitiveness (hypercompetitive only group), and (3) a pattern of low decreasing bullying and low stable hypercompetitiveness (low-risk group). Adolescents reflecting the high-risk joint trajectory pattern were differentiated from adolescents reflecting the other two trajectory patterns by having more adverse childhood social, emotional, and physical predictors. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that bullying is a developmental and context-dependent behavior that can reflect trait hypercompetitiveness. Bullying prevention efforts should focus on reducing emphasis on outcompeting peers and instead facilitate a sense of self-acceptance, awareness, and accomplishment within prosocial school and family environments.

Co-occurring trajectories of anxiety and insistence on sameness behaviour in autism spectrum disorder.

BACKGROUND: Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have increased susceptibility to anxiety disorders. Variation in a common ASD symptom, insistence on sameness behaviour, may predict future anxiety symptoms. AIMS: To describe the joint heterogeneous longitudinal trajectories of insistence on sameness and anxiety in children with ASD and to characterise subgroups at higher risk for anxiety. METHOD: In a longitudinal ASD cohort (n = 421), insistence on sameness behaviour was measured using the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised at approximately ages 3, 6 and 11 years. Anxiety was quantified at 8 time points between ages 3 and 11 years using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (parent report). Clusters of participants following similar trajectories were identified using group-based and joint trajectory modelling. RESULTS: Three insistence on sameness trajectories were identified: (a) 'low-stable' (41.7% of participants), (b) 'moderate-increasing' (52.0%) and (c) 'high-peaking' (i.e. increasing then stabilising/decreasing behaviour) (6.3%). Four anxiety trajectories were identified: (a) 'low-increasing' (51.0%), (b) 'moderate-decreasing' (16.2%), (c) 'moderate-increasing' (19.6%) and (d) 'high-stable' (13.1%). Of those assigned to the 'high-peaking' insistence on sameness trajectory, 95% jointly followed an anxiety trajectory that surpassed the threshold for clinical concern (T-score >65) by middle childhood (anxiety trajectories 3 or 4). Insistence on sameness and anxiety trajectories were similar in severity and direction for 64% of the sample; for 36%, incongruous patterns were seen (e.g. decreasing anxiety and increasing insistence on sameness). CONCLUSIONS: The concurrent assessment of insistence on sameness behaviour and anxiety in ASD may help in understanding current symptom profiles and anticipating future trajectories. High preschool insistence on sameness in particular may be associated with elevated current or future anxiety symptoms.

Symptom trajectories in the first 18 months and autism risk in a prospective high-risk cohort.

BACKGROUND: Although early autism spectrum disorder (ASD) detection strategies tend to focus on differences at a point in time, behavioral symptom trajectories may also be informative. METHODS: Developmental trajectories of early signs of ASD were examined in younger siblings of children diagnosed with ASD (n = 499) and infants with no family history of ASD (n = 177). Participants were assessed using the Autism Observation Scale for Infants (AOSI) from 6 to 18 months. Diagnostic outcomes were determined at age 3 years blind to previous assessments. RESULTS: Semiparametric group-based modeling using AOSI scores identified three distinct trajectories: Group 1 ('Low', n = 435, 64.3%) was characterized by a low level and stable evolution of ASD signs, group 2 ('Intermediate', n = 180, 26.6%) had intermediate and stable levels, and group 3 ('Inclining', n = 61, 9.3%) had higher and progressively elevated levels of ASD signs. Among younger siblings, ASD rates at age 3 varied by trajectory of early signs and were highest in the Inclining group, membership in which was highly specific (94.5%) but poorly sensitive (28.5%) to ASD. Children with ASD assigned to the inclining trajectory had more severe symptoms at age 3, but developmental and adaptive functioning did not differ by trajectory membership. CONCLUSIONS: These prospective data emphasize variable early-onset patterns and the importance of a multipronged approach to early surveillance and screening for ASD.

Assessment of Autism Symptoms From 6 to 18 Months of Age Using the Autism Observation Scale for Infants in a Prospective High-Risk Cohort.

The objectives were to characterize behavioral signs of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in younger siblings of diagnosed children (high-risk; HR) and examine classification features of the Autism Observation Scale for Infants (AOSI). Participants (501 HR and 180 low-risk [LR]) were assessed between 6 and 18 months using the AOSI and at age 3 for ASD diagnoses. Total AOSI scores differentiated HR infants later diagnosed with ASD starting at 12 months. ROC analyses identified 12- and 18-month cutoff scores associated with 0.52 sensitivity and 0.74 specificity and 0.73 sensitivity and 0.65 specificity, respectively. Although classification accuracy does not support use as a standalone screen, the AOSI identifies features associated with ASD starting at 6 months and differentiates HR infants with ASD by 12 months.

Adolescent empathic concern and perspective taking: Heterogeneous developmental trajectories and childhood social and psychological factors.

OBJECTIVE: The joint developmental trajectories of empathic concern and perspective taking were examined across adolescence, along with childhood social and psychological predictors. METHOD: Adolescents completed self-report measures of empathy annually from Grades 7 to 10 (i.e., ages 13 to 16; N = 609; 53.9% girls; 76.2% White). Childhood social and psychological predictors were assessed in Grades 5 and 6 using self- and parent-reports. RESULTS: As predicted, the majority of individuals reflected a joint trajectory of moderate stable empathic concern and moderate increasing perspective taking (31.9%), followed by joint high increasing (17.2%) and joint low stable (7.4%) empathy. Fewer adolescents reflected joint trajectories of being high on one form of empathy but not the other (e.g., high empathic concern only, 1.6%; high increasing perspective taking only, 2.8%). High increasing perspective taking was a better indicator of high increasing empathic concern than the reverse. Higher childhood hyperactivity, higher bullying perpetration, and lower perceived school climate were prominent predictors of developing low levels of at least one form of empathy, but childhood anxiety was a predictor of developing high empathy. CONCLUSIONS: The skills and abilities associated with perspective taking and empathic concern should be promoted, with special attention paid to early indicators of affective, cognitive, and behavioral self-regulation.

Profiles and Predictors of Academic and Social School Functioning among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Objective: The purpose of the study was to identify profiles and predictors of academic and social functioning in a sample of school-age children with autism spectrum disorder.Method: The study included 178 children (88% boys, 75% Caucasian, ages 10-11) who completed a standardized measure of academic skills and whose teachers completed a related measure. Measures of both academic and social performance were used to construct profiles of school functioning. Measures of language, nonverbal IQ, autism symptom severity, behavior difficulties, and early social-communication skills between ages 3 and 4 were used to examine predictors of profile membership. Latent Profile Analysis was used to identify and describe profiles of children's academic and social school functioning. Profile membership was then regressed on each of the predictors using a series of multinomial logistic regression models. Finally, a multivariate model that included all significant predictors was built to examine the best fitting constellation of profile predictors.Results: Four profiles - reflecting variation in academic achievement, school engagement, socialization skills, pragmatic language use, and social relationships - captured the diverse school functioning outcomes of the sample. Profile membership was predicted by variation in imitation, responding to joint attention, language ability, nonverbal IQ and behavior difficulties between ages 3 and 4 years. However, in a multivariate model, only language and behavior difficulties emerged as significant predictors.Conclusions: A person-centered approach to targeted early intervention that reduces behavior difficulties and enhances social-communication and language abilities may prove especially important for the promotion of later academic and social functioning at school.