Zika, abortion and health emergencies: a review of contemporary debates.

BACKGROUND: The Zika outbreak provides pertinent case study for considering the impact of health emergencies on abortion decision-making and/or for positioning abortion in global health security debates. MAIN BODY: This paper provides a baseline of contemporary debates taking place in the intersection of two key health policy areas, and seeks to understand how health emergency preparedness frameworks and the broader global health security infrastructure is prepared to respond to future crises which implicate sexual and reproductive rights. Our paper suggests there are three key themes that emerge from the literature; 1) the lack of consideration of sexual and reproductive health (SRH) services in outbreak response 2) structural inequalities permeate the landscape of health emergencies, epitomised by Zika, and 3) the need for rights based approaches to health. CONCLUSION: Global health security planning and response should specifically include programmatic activity for SRH provision during health emergencies.

The economic burden of congenital Zika Syndrome in Brazil: an overview at 5 years and 10 years.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this paper is to estimate the economic burden of children with congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS) in Brazil over 5-10 years. METHODS: We conducted a modelling study based on data collected in a case-control study in Brazil, including children with CZS (cases) and typically developing children (controls), born in 2015 and 2016. In total, 484 participants were recruited in two sites, Recife and Rio de Janeiro. Social and economic information was collected in a survey from the carers of cases and controls, and detailed healthcare utilisation was recorded for each child in the Rio de Janeiro cohort prospectively in a database. We used this information to estimate the cost per child with severe, moderate and no CZS and incremental cost per child with severe and moderate versus no CZS from a disaggregated societal perspective. These estimates were incorporated into an economic burden model to estimate the incremental burden of the CZS epidemic in Brazil over 5 years and 10 years. FINDINGS: The societal cost per child with severe CZS was US$50 523 to 10 years of age (born in 2015 and 2016), substantially higher than the costs for moderate CZS (US$29 283) and without CZS (US$12 331). The incremental economic burden of severe versus no CZS in Brazil over 10 years was US$69.4 million from the household and US$129.0 million from the government perspective. For moderate CZS, these figures amounted to US$204.1 million and US$86.6 million. Over 10 years, 97% of the total societal economic cost of severe CZS is borne by the government, but only 46% for moderate CZS. INTERPRETATION: The economic burden of CZS is high at the household, provider and government levels. The compensatory government payments helped to alleviate some of the additional costs incurred by families with a child qualifying for the disability benefits, and could be scaled to include the children with moderate CZS.

Validation of SmartVA using conventional autopsy: A study of adult deaths in Brazil.

Background: Accurate cause of death data are essential to guide health policy. However, mortality surveillance is limited in many low-income countries. In such settings, verbal autopsy (VA) is increasingly used to provide population-level cause of death data. VAs are now widely interpreted using the automated algorithms SmartVA and InterVA. Here we use conventional autopsy as the gold standard to validate SmartVA methodology. Methods: This study included adult deaths from natural causes in São Paulo and Recife for which conventional autopsy was indicated. VA was conducted with a relative of the deceased using an amended version of the SmartVA instrument to suit the local context. Causes of death from VA were produced using the SmartVA-Analyze program. Physician coded verbal autopsy (PCVA), conducted on the same questionnaires, and Global Burden of Disease Study data were used as additional comparators. Cause of death data were grouped into 10 broad causes for the validation due to the real-world utility of VA lying in identifying broad population cause of death patterns. Findings: The study included 2,060 deaths in São Paulo and 1,079 in Recife. The cause specific mortality fractions (CSMFs) estimated using SmartVA were broadly similar to conventional autopsy for: cardiovascular diseases (46.8% vs 54.0%, respectively), cancers (10.6% vs 11.4%), infections (7.0% vs 10.4%) and chronic respiratory disease (4.1% vs 3.7%), causes accounting for 76.1% of the autopsy dataset. The SmartVA CSMF estimates were lower than autopsy for "Other NCDs" (7.8% vs 14.6%) and higher for diabetes (13.0% vs 6.6%). CSMF accuracy of SmartVA compared to autopsy was 84.5%. CSMF accuracy for PCVA was 93.0%. Interpretation: The results suggest that SmartVA can, with reasonable accuracy, predict the broad cause of death groups important to assess a population's epidemiological transition. VA remains a useful tool for understanding causes of death where medical certification is not possible.

Violence against women by their intimate partner during pregnancy and postnatal depression: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Partner violence against women is common during pregnancy and might have an adverse effect on the mental health of women after delivery. We aimed to investigate the association of postnatal depression with psychological, physical, and sexual violence against women by their intimate partners during pregnancy. METHODS: In a prospective cohort study undertaken in Recife, northeastern Brazil, between July, 2005, and December, 2006, we enrolled pregnant women (aged 18-49 years) in their third trimester of pregnancy who were attending primary health-care clinics. The women were interviewed during pregnancy and after delivery. The form of partner violence in pregnancy was assessed with a validated questionnaire, and the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale was used to measure postnatal depression. Associations were estimated with odds ratios (ORs), adjusted for confounding factors contributing to the association between postnatal depression and intimate partner violence. FINDINGS: 1133 pregnant women were eligible for inclusion in the study, of whom 1045 had complete data for all variables and were included in the analysis. 270 women (25.8%, 95% CI 23.2-28.6) had postnatal depression. The most common form of partner violence was psychological (294 [28.1%, 25.4-31.0]). Frequency of psychological violence during pregnancy was positively associated with occurrence of postnatal depression, and although this association was attenuated after adjustment, women reporting the highest frequency of psychological violence were more likely to have postnatal depression even after adjustment (adjusted OR 2.29, 95% CI 1.15-4.57). Women who reported physical or sexual violence in pregnancy were more likely to develop postnatal depression (OR 3.28, 2.29-4.70), but this association was substantially reduced after adjustment for psychological violence and confounding factors. INTERPRETATION: Psychological violence during pregnancy by an intimate partner is strongly associated with postnatal depression, independently of physical or sexual violence. This finding has important policy implications since most social policies focus on prevention and treatment of physical violence. FUNDING: Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia da Secretaria de Ciência, Tecnologia, e Insumos Estratégicos, and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (Brazil).

Postnatal depression in women after unsuccessful attempted abortion.

A population-based cohort study investigated postnatal depression in Brazilian women who attempted an abortion. Participants' views and actions on abortion were assessed during pregnancy and postnatal depression was evaluated with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. An unsuccessful abortion attempt was associated with postnatal depression (adjusted OR = 1.6, 95% CI 1.0-2.5). In Brazil abortion is illegal under most circumstances.

Analysing the intersection between health emergencies and abortion during Zika in Brazil, El Salvador and Colombia.

The Zika outbreak of 2015-7 is a lens to analyse the positioning of abortion within in global health security. The sequelae of the virus almost exclusively affected newborn children, manifested through Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS), and a focus on women at risk of, planning or being pregnant. At the global level, debate considered whether Zika would provide impetus for regulatory change for reproductive rights in Latin America, a region with some of the most restrictive abortion regulation in the world. However, regulatory change for abortion did not occur. We analyse why the Zika health emergency did not lead to any changes in abortion regulation through multi-method analysis of the intersection between Zika, health emergencies and abortion in Brazil, Colombia and El Salvador. These case study countries were purposefully selected; each had Zika infected women (albeit with differing incidence) yet represent diverse regulatory environments for abortion. Our comparative research is multi-method: framework analysis of key informant interviews (n = 49); content analysis of women's enquiries to a medical abortion telemedicine provider; and, policy analysis of (inter)national-level Zika response and abortion policies. We consider this within literature on global health security, and the prioritisation of a particular approach to epidemic control. Within this securitized landscape, despite increased public debate about abortion regulatory change, no meaningful change occurred, due to a dominant epidemiological approach to the Zika health emergency in all three countries and prominent conservative forces in government and within anti-abortion rights movements. Simultaneously, we demonstrate that regulation did not deter all women from seeking such service clandestinely.

Zika-related adverse outcomes in a cohort of pregnant women with rash in Pernambuco, Brazil.

BACKGROUND: While Zika virus (ZIKV) is now widely recognized as a teratogen, the frequency and full spectrum of adverse outcomes of congenital ZIKV infection remains incompletely understood. METHODS: Participants in the MERG cohort of pregnant women with rash, recruited from the surveillance system from December/2015-June/2017. Exposure definition was based on a combination of longitudinal data from molecular, serologic (IgM and IgG3) and plaque reduction neutralization tests for ZIKV. Children were evaluated by a team of clinical specialists and by transfontanelle ultrasound and were classified as having microcephaly and/or other signs/symptoms consistent with congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). Risks of adverse outcomes were quantified according to the relative evidence of a ZIKV infection in pregnancy. FINDINGS: 376 women had confirmed and suspected exposure to ZIKV. Among evaluable children born to these mothers, 20% presented with an adverse outcome compatible with exposure to ZIKV during pregnancy. The absolute risk of microcephaly was 2.9% (11/376), of calcifications and/or ventriculomegaly was 7.2% (13/180), of additional neurologic alterations was 5.3% (13/245), of ophthalmologic abnormalities was 7% (15/214), and of dysphagia was 1.8% (4/226). Less than 1% of the children experienced abnormalities across all of the domains simultaneously. Interpretation: Although approximately one-fifth of children with confirmed and suspected exposure to ZIKV in pregnancy presented with at least one abnormality compatible with CZS, the manifestations presented more frequently in isolation than in combination. Due to the rare nature of some outcomes and the possibility of later manifestations, large scale individual participant data meta-analysis and the long-term evaluation of children are imperative to identify the full spectrum of this syndrome and to plan actions to reduce damages.

"Life Is Taking Me Where I Need to Go": Biographical Disruption and New Arrangements in the Lives of Female Family Carers of Children with Congenital Zika Syndrome in Pernambuco, Brazil.

The congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) epidemic in Brazil turned the spotlight on many other factors beyond illness, such as poverty, gender, and inequalities in health care. Women were the emblematic subjects in this study, not only because Zika virus is a vertical transmission disease, but also because women-in Brazil and elsewhere-typically represent the primary carers of children. This is a qualitative analytic study using semi-structured interviews with 23 female family carers of children with CZS in Brazil. Through the concept of biographical disruption, we analysed some of the social impacts experienced by women involved in caring for affected children. We identified that the arrival of a child with disabilities resulted in biographical disruption similar to that experienced by people with chronic illnesses. Social support networks were configured through an alliance between women from different generations, revealing solidarity networks, but also highlighting the absence of the state in tackling these social vulnerabilities. Tracing the pathways of these biographical narratives enables us to understand how women have acted to defend the value of their disabled children in a society structured on the model of body normativity and inequality. These results may provide clues to a more inclusive society, which confronts systems of gender oppression and the sexual division of labour focused on women.

Hope and trust in times of Zika: the views of caregivers and healthcare workers at the forefront of the epidemic in Brazil.

This article investigates how hope and trust played out for two groups at the forefront of the Zika epidemic: caregivers of children with congenital Zika syndrome and healthcare workers. We conducted 76 in-depth interviews with members of both groups to examine hope and trust in clinical settings, as well as trust in public institutions, in the health system and in the government of Brazil. During and after the Zika epidemic, hope and trust were important to manage uncertainty and risk, given the lack of scientific evidence about the neurological consequences of Zika virus infection. The capacity of healthcare workers and caregivers to trust and to co-create hope seems to have allowed relationships to develop that cushioned social impacts, reinforced adherence to therapeutics and enabled information flow. Hope facilitated parents to trust healthcare workers and interventions. Hope and trust appeared to be central in the establishment of support networks for caregivers. At the same time, mistrust in the government and state institutions may have allowed rumours and alternative explanations about Zika to spread. It may also have strengthened activism in mother's associations, which seemed to have both positive and negative implications for healthcare service delivery. The findings also point to distrust in international health actors and global health agenda, which can impact community engagement in future outbreak responses in Brazil and other countries in Latin America.

The association of depression, anxiety, and stress with caring for a child with Congenital Zika Syndrome in Brazil; Results of a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in pregnancy can cause microcephaly and a wide spectrum of severe adverse outcomes, collectively called "Congenital Zika Syndrome" (CZS). Parenting a child with disabilities can have adverse mental health impacts, but these associations have not been fully explored in the context of CZS in Brazil. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A cross-sectional study was undertaken in Recife and Rio de Janeiro, including 163 caregivers of a child with CZS (cases) and 324 caregivers with an unaffected child (comparison subjects), identified from existing studies. The primary caregiver, almost always the mother, was interviewed using a structured questionnaire to collect information on: depression, anxiety, and stress (Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-DASS-21), social support (Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Scale-MOS-SSS), and socio-demographic data. Data was collected May 2017-January 2018. Ethical standards were adhered to throughout the research. A high proportion of mothers reported experiencing severe or extremely severe levels of depression (18%), anxiety (27%) and stress (36%). Mothers of children with CZS were more likely to experience symptoms of depression, anxiety andstress, compared to mothers of comparison children. These associations were more apparent among mothers living in Rio de Janeiro. These differences were reduced after adjustment for socio-economic status and social support. Among mothers of children with CZS, low social support was linked to higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress, but there was no association with socio-economic status. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Depression, anxiety and stress were very common among mothers of young children in Brazil, regardless of whether they were parenting a child with disabilities. Mothers of children with CZS may be particularly vulnerable to poor mental health, and this association may be buffered through better social support.

Access to healthcare for children with Congenital Zika Syndrome in Brazil: perspectives of mothers and health professionals.

The Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS) epidemic took place in Brazil between 2015 and 2017 and led to the emergence of at least 3194 children born with CZS. We explored access to healthcare services and activities in the Unified Health Service (Sistema Único de Saúde: SUS) from the perspective of mothers of children with CZS and professionals in the Public Healthcare Network. We carried out a qualitative, exploratory study, using semi-structured interviews, in two Brazilian states-Pernambuco, which was the epicentre of the epidemic in Brazil, and Rio de Janeiro, where the epidemic was less intense. The mothers and health professionals reported that healthcare provision was insufficient and fragmented and there were problems with follow-up care. There was a lack of co-ordination and an absence of communication between the various specialized services and between different levels of the health system. We also noted a public-private mixture in access to healthcare services, resulting from a segmented system and related to inequality of access. High reported household expenditure is an expression of the phenomenon of underfunding of the public system. The challenges that mothers and health professionals reported exposes contradictions in the health system which, although universal, does not guarantee equitable and comprehensive care. Other gaps were revealed through the outbreak. The epidemic provided visibility regarding difficulties of access for other children with disabilities determined by other causes. It also made explicit the gender inequalities that had an impact on the lives of mothers and other female caregivers, as well as an absence of the provision of care for these groups. In the face of an epidemic, the Brazilian State reproduced old fashioned forms of action-activities related to the transmitting mosquito and to prevention with an emphasis on the individual and no action related to social determinants.

Implementing international human rights recommendations to improve obstetric care in Brazil.

In 2011, the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) issued a groundbreaking decision in the case of Alyne da Silva Pimentel Teixeira versus Brazil involving the maternal death of a young Afro-Brazilian woman. The CEDAW addressed systemic failures in the Brazilian health system that combined to violate Alyne's rights to life, health, and access to maternal health services. Almost 5 years later, after significant back and forth between the concerned parties, a technical follow-up commission was created with the support of the Center for Reproductive Rights, and was welcomed by the government of Brazil. The technical follow-up commission was precedent-setting, seeking to move beyond identifying gaps in "compliance" and concentrate instead on issues that might catalyze re-engagement by national level stakeholders, both governmental and non-governmental, with the aim of advancing CEDAW's recommendations through not only the creation, but also the effective implementation, of policies and programs that promote women's sexual and reproductive rights in practice, including their rights to safe motherhood. Here, the human-rights-based framework of the technical follow-up commission is described, in addition to their findings related to legal and policy frameworks, evidence-based programing, and monitoring and oversight of providers.

The microcephaly epidemic and Zika virus: building knowledge in epidemiology. / Epidemia de microcefalia e vírus Zika: a construção do conhecimento em epidemiologia.

In August 2015, pediatric neurologists at public hospitals in Recife, Pernambuco State, Brazil, observed an increase in the number of disproportional microcephaly cases associated with other congenital anomalies. The fact caused social commotion and mobilization of the academic community and led the Brazilian Ministry of Health to declare a national public health emergency, followed by the declaration of a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by the World Health Organization. The hypothesis for the phenomenon was congenital Zika virus (ZIKV) infection, based on spatial-temporal correlation and the clinical-epidemiological characteristics of the two epidemics. Further evidence accumulated, and within the scope of epidemiologial reasoning fulfilled criteria that gave support to the hypothesis. The plausibility of the hypothesis is based on the neurotropism of ZIKV, demonstrated in animals, affecting neural progenitors in the developing brain, and in humans, due to neurological complications in adults following infection. Isolation of viral RNA and antigens in the amniotic fluid of infected mothers and in brains of newborns and fetuses with microcephaly further demonstrated the consistency of the hypothesis. The criterion of temporality was met by identifying adverse pregnancy outcomes in a cohort of mothers with a history of rash and positive ZIKV serology. Finally, the first case-control study demonstrated a strong association between microcephaly and congenital ZIKV infection. The knowledge built with the epidemiological paradigm was supported by the scientific community, thereby establishing the consensus for a causal relationship between ZIKV and the microcephaly epidemic.

Em agosto de 2015, neuropediatras de hospitais públicos do Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil, observaram um aumento do número de casos de microcefalia desproporcional associado a anomalias cerebrais. Esse fato gerou comoção social, mobilização da comunidade acadêmica e levou o Ministério da Saúde a decretar emergência de saúde pública nacional, seguida pela declaração de emergência de saúde pública de interesse internacional da Organização Mundial da Saúde. A hipótese formulada para o fenômeno foi a infecção congênita pelo vírus Zika (ZIKV), com base na correlação espaço-temporal e nas características clínico-epidemiológicas das duas epidemias. Evidências se acumularam e no âmbito do raciocínio epidemiológico preencheram critérios que deram sustentação à hipótese. Sua plausibilidade está ancorada no neurotropismo do ZIKV demonstrado em animais, atingindo neurônios progenitores do cérebro em desenvolvimento, e em seres humanos devido às complicações neurológicas observadas em adultos após a infecção. O isolamento do RNA e antígenos virais no líquido amniótico de mães infectadas e em cérebros de neonatos e fetos com microcefalia contribuíram para demonstrar a consistência da hipótese. O critério de temporalidade foi contemplado ao se identificar desfechos desfavoráveis em uma coorte de gestantes com exantema e positivas para o ZIKV. Finalmente, o primeiro estudo caso-controle conduzido demonstrou existir uma forte associação entre microcefalia e infecção congênita pelo ZIKV. O conhecimento construído no âmbito do paradigma epidemiológico recebeu a chancela da comunidade científica, construindo o consenso de uma relação causal entre o ZIKV e a epidemia de microcefalia.

En agosto de 2015, neuropediatras de hospitales públicos de Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil, observaron un aumento desproporcional del número de casos de microcefalia, asociado a anomalías cerebrales. Este hecho generó conmoción social, movilización de la comunidad académica y obligó al Ministerio de Salud a decretar la emergencia de salud pública nacional, seguida de la declaración de interés internacional de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. La hipótesis formulada para este fenómeno fue la infección congénita por el virus Zika (ZIKV), en base a la correlación espacio-temporal y a las características clínico-epidemiológicas de las dos epidemias. Se acumularon evidencias, y en el ámbito del raciocinio epidemiológico se cumplieron los criterios que dieron apoyo a la hipótesis. Su plausibilidad está anclada en el neurotropismo del ZIKV, demostrado en animales, alcanzando progenitores neuronales del cerebro en desarrollo, y en seres humanos, debido a las complicaciones neurológicas observadas en adultos tras la infección. El aislamiento del ARN y antígenos virales en el líquido amniótico de madres infectadas, en cerebros de neonatos y fetos con microcefalia, contribuyeron a demostrar la consistencia de la hipótesis. El criterio de temporalidad se contempló al identificarse desenlaces desfavorables en una cohorte de gestantes con exantema y positivas en ZIKV. Finalmente, el primer estudio caso-control realizado demostró que existía una fuerte asociación entre microcefalia e infección congénita por el ZIKV. El conocimiento construido en el ámbito del paradigma epidemiológico recibió la aprobación de la comunidad científica, existiendo consenso en cuanto a la relación causal entre el ZIKV y la epidemia de microcefalia.

Social and economic impacts of congenital Zika syndrome in Brazil: Study protocol and rationale for a mixed-methods study.

Global concern broke out in late 2015 as thousands of children in Brazil were born with microcephaly, which was quickly linked to congenital infection with Zika virus (ZIKV). ZIKV is now known to cause a wider spectrum of severe adverse outcomes-congenital Zika syndrome (CZS)-and also milder impairments. This study aimed to explore the social and economic impacts of CZS in Brazil. Data was collected through mixed methods across two settings: Recife City and Jaboatão dos Guararapes in Pernambuco State (the epicentre of the epidemic), and the city of Rio de Janeiro (where reports of ZIKV infection and CZS were less frequent). Data was collected May 2017-January 2018. Ethical standards were adhered to throughout the research. In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with: mothers and other carers of children with CZS (approximately 30 per setting), pregnant women (10-12 per setting), men and women of child-bearing age (16-20 per setting), and health professionals (10-12 per setting). Thematic analysis was undertaken independently by researchers from at least two research settings, and these were shared for feedback. A case-control study was undertaken to quantitatively explore social and economic differences between caregivers of a child with CZS (cases) and caregivers with an unaffected child (controls). We aimed to recruit 100 cases and 100 controls per setting, from existing studies. The primary caregiver, usually the mother, was interviewed using a structured questionnaire to collect information on: depression, anxiety, stress, social support, family quality of life, health care and social service use, and costs incurred by families. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to compare outcomes for cases and controls. Costs incurred as a result of CZS were estimated from the perspective of the health system, families and society. Modelling was undertaken to estimate the total economic burden of CZS from those three perspectives.

Association between microcephaly, Zika virus infection, and other risk factors in Brazil: final report of a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: A Zika virus epidemic emerged in northeast Brazil in 2015 and was followed by a striking increase in congenital microcephaly cases, triggering a declaration of an international public health emergency. This is the final report of the first case-control study evaluating the potential causes of microcephaly: congenital Zika virus infection, vaccines, and larvicides. The published preliminary report suggested a strong association between microcephaly and congenital Zika virus infection. METHODS: We did a case-control study in eight public maternity hospitals in Recife, Brazil. Cases were neonates born with microcephaly, defined as a head circumference of 2 SD below the mean. Two controls without microcephaly were matched to each case by expected date of delivery and area of residence. We tested the serum of cases and controls and the CSF of cases for detection of Zika virus genomes with quantitative RT-PCR and for detection of IgM antibodies with capture-IgM ELISA. We also tested maternal serum with plaque reduction neutralisation assays for Zika and dengue viruses. We estimated matched crude and adjusted odds ratios with exact conditional logistic regression to determine the association between microcephaly and Zika virus infection. FINDINGS: We screened neonates born between Jan 15 and Nov 30, 2016, and prospectively recruited 91 cases and 173 controls. In 32 (35%) cases, congenital Zika virus infection was confirmed by laboratory tests and no controls had confirmed Zika virus infections. 69 (83%) of 83 cases with known birthweight were small for gestational age, compared with eight (5%) of 173 controls. The overall matched odds ratio was 73·1 (95% CI 13·0-∞) for microcephaly and Zika virus infection after adjustments. Neither vaccination during pregnancy or use of the larvicide pyriproxyfen was associated with microcephaly. Results of laboratory tests for Zika virus and brain imaging results were available for 79 (87%) cases; within these cases, ten were positive for Zika virus and had cerebral abnormalities, 13 were positive for Zika infection but had no cerebral abnormalities, and 11 were negative for Zika virus but had cerebral abnormalities. INTERPRETATION: The association between microcephaly and congenital Zika virus infection was confirmed. We provide evidence of the absence of an effect of other potential factors, such as exposure to pyriproxyfen or vaccines (tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis, measles and rubella, or measles, mumps, and rubella) during pregnancy, confirming the findings of an ecological study of pyriproxyfen in Pernambuco and previous studies on the safety of Tdap vaccine administration during pregnancy. FUNDING: Brazilian Ministry of Health, Pan American Health Organization, and Enhancing Research Activity in Epidemic Situations.

Previous experience of family violence and intimate partner violence in pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate differential associations between the exposure to violence in the family of origin and victimization and perpetration of intimate partner violence in pregnancy. METHODS: A nested case-control study was carried out within a cohort study with 1,120 pregnant women aged 18-49 years old, who were registered in the Family Health Strategy of the city of Recife, State of Pernambuco, Brazil, between 2005 and 2006. The cases were the 233 women who reported intimate partner violence in pregnancy and the controls were the 499 women who did not report it. Partner violence in pregnancy and previous experiences of violence committed by parents or other family members were assessed with a standardized questionnaire. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were modeled to identify differential associations between the exposure to violence in the family of origin and victimization and perpetration of intimate partner violence in pregnancy. RESULTS: Having seen the mother suffer intimate partner violence was associated with physical violence in childhood (OR = 2.62; 95%CI 1.89-3.63) and in adolescence (OR = 1.47; 95%CI 1.01-2.13), sexual violence in childhood (OR = 3.28; 95%CI 1.68-6.38) and intimate partner violence during pregnancy (OR = 1.47; 95% CI 1.01 - 2.12). The intimate partner violence during pregnancy was frequent in women who reported more episodes of physical violence in childhood (OR = 2.08; 95%CI 1.43-3.02) and adolescence (OR = 1.63; 95%CI 1.07-2.47), who suffered sexual violence in childhood (OR = 3.92; 95%CI 1.86-8.27), and who perpetrated violence against the partner (OR = 8.67; 95%CI 4.57-16.45). CONCLUSIONS: Experiences of violence committed by parents or other family members emerge as strong risk factors for intimate partner violence in pregnancy. Identifying and understanding protective and risk factors for the emergence of intimate partner violence in pregnancy and its maintenance may help policymakers and health service managers to develop intervention strategies.

Sobre gestar e parir uma criança com a Síndrome Congênita do Zika Vírus: um estudo de caso / On gestating and giving birth to a child with congenital zika virus syndrome: a case study

Resumo Este artigo busca analisar o contexto de gestação, pré-natal e parto de uma criança com Síndrome Congênita do Zika (SCZ). É um estudo exploratório qualitativo, tipo estudo de caso único, delineado a partir de entrevista em profundidade realizada com uma mãe de criança diagnosticada com SCZ em Pernambuco. A análise dos dados ocorreu mediante a categorização do conteúdo da entrevista em quatro núcleos temáticos: contexto da descoberta da gestação; condições da assistência ao pré-natal e ao parto; condições de diagnóstico e assistência à criança; e sentimentos envolvidos na descoberta da gestação e do diagnóstico da síndrome. Esse caso sinaliza falhas no planejamento reprodutivo e na assistência ao pré-natal e parto; despreparo dos profissionais de saúde; e mudanças significativas na rotina da família, que implicam escolhas difíceis num contexto de deficitária assistência pública à saúde. A epidemia da SCZ revelou problemas que vão além do controle vetorial do mosquito. O panorama atual escancara vulnerabilidades dessas famílias, intensificadas com o surgimento e as consequências da covid-19, o que tem exposto ainda mais as fragilidades da atenção integral à saúde da mulher e a necessidade de manter uma rede articulada e resolutiva na assistência e vigilância em saúde.

Abstract This study analyzes the context of pregnancy, prenatal care and birth of children with Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS). A single case exploratory study was conducted with a mother of a child diagnosed with CZS in Pernambuco, Brazil. Data were collected by an in-depth interview and content was categorized into four themes: discovery of pregnancy; conditions of prenatal and childbirth care; conditions of diagnosis and childcare; and feelings involved in the pregnancy discovery and syndrome diagnosis. This case study highlights failures in reproductive planning and in prenatal and childbirth care; unpreparedness of health professionals; and significant changes in the family's routine, which imply difficult choices under a deficient public health care. CZS epidemic uncovered problems that go beyond mosquito vector control. The current scenario highlights the vulnerabilities of these families, intensified by the emergence and consequences of COVID-19, which has further exposed the weaknesses of women's comprehensive health care and the need to maintain an articulated and resolute network in health care and surveillance.

Physical violence by an intimate partner and the inappropriate use of prenatal care services among women in Northeastern Brazil. / Violência física pelo parceiro íntimo e uso inadequado do pré-natal entre mulheres do Nordeste do Brasil.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the association between physical violence by an intimate partner (PVIP) and the inappropriate use of prenatal care services. METHODS: A nested cross-sectional study was conducted with 1,026 women, based on data from a prospective cohort study designed to investigate intimate partner violence among pregnant women enrolled in the Family Health Program (PSF) in Recife, Northeastern Brazil. The use of prenatal care services was assessed with basis on the guidelines from the Program for Humanization of Prenatal Care and Childbirth (Brazilian Ministry of Health) and considered the time of the first prenatal care visit and the total number of visits during the pregnancy. Data were collected through two face-to-face interviews (one in the last pregnancy trimester and the other in the postpartum period), using standardized questionnaires and data on Pregnancy Card records. An unconditional logistic regression was performed to estimate the odds ratio (OR) and the 95% confidence intervals to measure the association between an PVIP and the inappropriate use of prenatal care services, using the stepwise method. RESULTS: The prevalence of the inappropriate use of prenatal care services was 44.1% and of an PVIP, 25.6%. In the logistic regression analysis, an intimatePVIP was associated with inappropriate prenatal care (OR = 1.37; 95%CI 1.01 - 1.85; p = 0.04) after adjustment by variables confirmed as confounders (parity, alcohol use in pregnancy, and education level). CONCLUSION: Women who are victims of an PVIP have more chance of receiving inappropriate prenatal care due to late onset of prenatal care, fewer prenatal care visits, or both.

Association between Zika virus infection and microcephaly in Brazil, January to May, 2016: preliminary report of a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: The microcephaly epidemic, which started in Brazil in 2015, was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by WHO in 2016. We report the preliminary results of a case-control study investigating the association between microcephaly and Zika virus infection during pregnancy. METHODS: We did this case-control study in eight public hospitals in Recife, Brazil. Cases were neonates with microcephaly. Two controls (neonates without microcephaly), matched by expected date of delivery and area of residence, were selected for each case. Serum samples of cases and controls and cerebrospinal fluid samples of cases were tested for Zika virus-specific IgM and by quantitative RT-PCR. Laboratory-confirmed Zika virus infection during pregnancy was defined as detection of Zika virus-specific IgM or a positive RT-PCR result in neonates. Maternal serum samples were tested by plaque reduction neutralisation assay for Zika virus and dengue virus. We estimated crude odds ratios (ORs) and 95% CIs using a median unbiased estimator for binary data in an unconditional logistic regression model. We estimated ORs separately for cases with and without radiological evidence of brain abnormalities. FINDINGS: Between Jan 15, 2016, and May 2, 2016, we prospectively recruited 32 cases and 62 controls. 24 (80%) of 30 mothers of cases had Zika virus infection compared with 39 (64%) of 61 mothers of controls (p=0·12). 13 (41%) of 32 cases and none of 62 controls had laboratory-confirmed Zika virus infection; crude overall OR 55·5 (95% CI 8·6-∞); OR 113·3 (95% CI 14·5-∞) for seven cases with brain abnormalities; and OR 24·7 (95% CI 2·9-∞) for four cases without brain abnormalities. INTERPRETATION: Our data suggest that the microcephaly epidemic is a result of congenital Zika virus infection. We await further data from this ongoing study to assess other potential risk factors and to confirm the strength of association in a larger sample size. FUNDING: Brazilian Ministry of Health, Pan American Health Organization, and Enhancing Research Activity in Epidemic Situations.

Incidence and risk factors for intimate partner violence during the postpartum period.

OBJECTIVE To estimate the incidence and identify risk factors for intimate partner violence during postpartum. METHODS This prospective cohort study was conducted with women, aged between 18-49 years, enrolled in the Brazilian Family Health Strategy in Recife, Northeastern Brazil, between 2005 and 2006. Of the 1.057 women interviewed during pregnancy and postpartum, 539 women, who did not report violence before or during pregnancy, were evaluated. A theoretical-conceptual framework was built with three levels of factors hierarchically ordered: women's and partners' sociodemografic and behavioral characteristics, and relationship dynamics. Incidence and risk factors of intimate partner violence were estimated by Poisson Regression. RESULTS The incidence of violence during postpartum was 9.3% (95%CI 7.0;12.0). Isolated psychological violence was the most common (4.3%; 95%CI 2.8;6.4). The overlapping of psychological with physical violence occurred at 3.3% (95%CI 2.0;5.3) and with physical and/or sexual in almost 2.0% (95%CI 0.8;3.0) of cases. The risk of partner violence during postpartum was increased for women with a low level of education (RR = 2.6; 95%CI 1.3;5.4), without own income (RR = 1.7; 95%CI 1.0;2.9) and those who perpetrated physical violence against their partner without being assaulted first (RR = 2.0; 95%CI 1.2;3.4), had a very controlling partner (RR = 2.5; 95%CI 1.1;5.8), and had frequent fights with their partner (RR = 1.7; 95%CI 1.0;2.9). CONCLUSIONS The high incidence of intimate partner violence during postpartum and its association with aspects of the relationship's quality between the couple, demonstrated the need for public policies that promote conflict mediation and enable forms of empowerment for women to address the cycle of violence.