Molecular epidemiology of Italian clinical Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii isolates.

Cryptococcus neoformans variety grubii is the major etiological agent of cryptococcal meningitis in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients. The current PCR-based molecular methods are not sufficient to discriminate among the different populations of this yeast. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the genotypes of the Italian clinical C. neoformans var. grubii isolates by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). A total of 53 isolates, each representative of a single case, were studied. Genotyping was performed using the ISHAM Cryptococcus MLST consensus scheme and the results were compared to the publically available global C. neoformans var. grubii MLST dataset. A total of 16 genotypes were identified; 14 were new genotypes, one was identical to sequence type (ST) ST81, which had been previously reported from Thailand, and one to ST23 already identified in Uganda, the USA and Korea. Sequence type ST61 was the most numerous, including 16 isolates. Network phylogenetic analysis showed that the Italian isolates could be divided into at least three clusters with similarities with those recovered in Africa, Asia and Americas. Distribution of the STs among the isolates could not be correlated to the hospital in which they were recovered or to the HIV status of the patients. The majority of the isolates belonged to the molecular type VNI; three belonged to the rare molecular type VNII and one to the VNB group, which until now had not been described in Europe. The results reveal that the Italian C. neoformans var. grubii population presents a distinct variability, displaying a high number of new genotypes, and probably recombines sexually.

Cryptococcus gattii serotype-C strains isolated in Bangalore, Karnataka, India.

During a retrospective study on cryptococcosis carried out in Bangalore, Karnataka, India, four Cryptococcus gattii strains were isolated from one HIV-positive and three HIV-negative patients, two of which had unknown predisposing conditions. Serotyping and genotyping showed that the isolates were C. gattii serotype C, mating-type α and genotype VGIV. All the isolates were identical by multilocus sequence typing, but presented a low similarity compared with a set of 17 C. gattii global control strains. The comparison with a larger number of previously reported C. gattii strains, including African isolates, revealed a close relationship between Indian and African serotype-C isolates.

Global population structure of Aspergillus terreus inferred by ISSR typing reveals geographical subclustering.

BACKGROUND: Aspergillus terreus causes invasive aspergillosis (IA) in immunocompromised individuals and can be the leading cause of IA in certain medical centers. We examined a large isolate collection (n = 117) for the presence of cryptic A. terreus species and employed a genome scanning method, Inter-Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) PCR to determine A. terreus population structure. RESULTS: Comparative sequence analyses of the calmodulin locus revealed the presence of the recently recognized species A. alabamensis (n = 4) in this collection. Maximum parsimony, Neighbor joining, and Bayesian clustering of the ISSR data from the 113 sequence-confirmed A. terreus isolates demonstrated that one clade was composed exclusively of isolates from Europe and another clade was enriched for isolates from the US. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence of a population structure linked to geographical origin in A. terreus.

Uneven distribution of mating types among genotypes of Candida glabrata isolates from clinical samples.

In order to shed light on its basic biology, we initiated a population genetic analysis of Candida glabrata, an emerging pathogenic yeast with no sexual stage yet recognized. A worldwide collection of clinical strains was subjected to analysis using variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) at nine loci. The clustering of strains obtained with this method was congruent with that obtained using sequence polymorphism of the NMT1 gene, a locus previously proposed for lineage assignment. Linkage disequilibrium supported the hypothesis of a mainly clonal reproduction. No heterozygous diploid genotype was found. Minimum-spanning tree analysis of VNTR data revealed clonal expansions and associated genotypic diversification. Mating type analysis revealed that 80% of the strains examined are MATa and 20% MATalpha and that the two alleles are not evenly distributed. The MATa genotype dominated within large clonal groups that contained only one or a few MATalpha types. In contrast, two groups were dominated by MATalpha strains. Our data are consistent with rare independent mating type switching events occurring preferentially from type a to alpha, although the alternative possibility of selection favoring type a isolates cannot be excluded.

Consensus multi-locus sequence typing scheme for Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii.

This communication describes the consensus multi-locus typing scheme established by the Cryptococcal Working Group I (Genotyping of Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii) of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology (ISHAM) using seven unlinked genetic loci for global strain genotyping. These genetic loci include the housekeeping genes CAP59,GPD1, LAC1, PLB1, SOD1, URA5 and the IGS1 region. Allele and sequence type information are accessible at http://www.mlst.net/ .

Electrophoretic karyotyping of Cryptococcus neoformans AD-hybrid strains.

This study investigated the differences in genome structure between haploid serotype A and D isolates and AD-hybrid strains of Cryptococcus neoformans, and the correlation between the karyotype of A and D strains with their mating ability. The electrophoretic karyotyping of 16 AD-hybrid, eight haploid serotype-A MATalpha, and eight haploid serotype-D MATalphaC. neoformans isolates was performed. These 32 isolates presented, two by two, the same genotype and flow cytometry profile. Five clusters were identified, each including VNI (serotype A), VNIV (serotype D) haploid strains and VNIII AD hybrids. Similarly, mating types were also randomly distributed in the five clusters. In addition, AD-hybrid isolates, with double content of DNA, showed only a slight increase in both the number of chromosomal bands and the calculated genome size compared with haploid isolates. Data support the hypothesis that hybrid isolates are aneuploids (2n+x) rather than eudiploids (2n). In addition, a set of six mating type a strains were karyotyped and then used for mating experiments carried out crossing the haploid isolates with similar or different karyotype profile strains. Isolates with completely different karyotype were able to mate confirming that meiosis occurred even in the presence of chromosomes of different lengths.

Defining responses to therapy and study outcomes in clinical trials of invasive fungal diseases: Mycoses Study Group and European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer consensus criteria.

Invasive fungal diseases (IFDs) have become major causes of morbidity and mortality among highly immunocompromised patients. Authoritative consensus criteria to diagnose IFD have been useful in establishing eligibility criteria for antifungal trials. There is an important need for generation of consensus definitions of outcomes of IFD that will form a standard for evaluating treatment success and failure in clinical trials. Therefore, an expert international panel consisting of the Mycoses Study Group and the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer was convened to propose guidelines for assessing treatment responses in clinical trials of IFDs and for defining study outcomes. Major fungal diseases that are discussed include invasive disease due to Candida species, Aspergillus species and other molds, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, and Coccidioides immitis. We also discuss potential pitfalls in assessing outcome, such as conflicting clinical, radiological, and/or mycological data and gaps in knowledge.

Species distribution and in vitro antifungal susceptibility patterns of 75 clinical isolates of Fusarium spp. from northern Italy.

Fusarium isolates from 75 Italian patients were identified by molecular methods, and their susceptibilities to antifungals were tested in vitro. Fusarium verticillioides was the species most frequently isolated from deep-seated infections, and F. solani was the species most frequently isolated from superficial infections. F. solani isolates showed high azole MICs, while F. verticillioides isolates showed low posaconazole MICs.

In vitro activity of conventional antifungal drugs and natural essences against the yeast-like alga Prototheca.

BACKGROUND: Two outbreaks of mastitis due to the yeast-like alga Prototheca zopfii recently occurred in dairy herds in Lombardia (Italy) involving 180 and 150 lactating cows, respectively. OBJECTIVES: To determine the in vitro susceptibility of Prototheca isolates to conventional antifungal agents and to essential oils. METHODS: Twenty P. zopfii isolated from milk during these outbreaks, six P. zopfii isolated from fresh water and two Prototheca sp. reference strains were submitted to antifungal susceptibility testing by broth microdilution assay following the CLSI guidelines for yeasts. RESULTS: The tested isolates were shown to be resistant to fluconazole and caspofungin. A wide range of voriconazole MICs was observed. In contrast, amphotericin B, itraconazole and posaconazole appeared active with MICs < or = 1 mg/L. Bergamot and tea tree oils seemed to exert an interesting activity against this yeast-like alga. CONCLUSIONS: Difficulties in treating animals with conventional drugs and the potent in vitro activity of essential oils demonstrated here raise the interest in further investigations on the therapeutic use of these non-conventional natural products.

In vitro testing of fungicidal activity of biocides against Aspergillus fumigatus.

The activity of biocides against Aspergillus fumigatus is unknown. In the European guidelines to evaluate the fungicidal activity of a biocide, the critical step concerning the preparation of conidial suspensions is cumbersome and time-consuming. The aims of this study were to evaluate a simplified procedure to prepare conidial suspensions to test a biocide in comparison with the recommended one and to investigate the in vitro activity of seven biocides by the suspension neutralization method against A. fumigatus clinical isolates. The proposed simplified procedure proved reproducible, gave the same results and was quicker than that described in the European guidelines. Benzalkonium chloride (0.25 %), glutaraldehyde (1.6 %), polyvinylpyrrolidone iodine (1 % available iodine) and polyester glycol iodine (0.18 % available iodine) showed biocidal activity in

Susceptibility testing of sequential isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus recovered from treated patients.

Two-hundred sequential Aspergillus fumigatus isolates recovered from 26 immunocompromised patients with invasive aspergillosis or bronchial colonization were tested for their in vitro susceptibility to posaconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, terbinafine and amphotericin B. Twenty-one patients were treated with amphotericin B and/or itraconazole. Antifungal susceptibilities of the isolates recovered before treatment were not significantly different from those of isolates recovered after the onset of antifungal therapy. The highest MICs were 0.125, 0.5, 0.5, 1 and 1 microg ml(-1) for posaconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, terbinafine and amphotericin B, respectively. It is concluded that the emergence of resistance in A. fumigatus during antifungal therapy with amphotericin B or itraconazole is an uncommon phenomenon.

Cryptococcus neoformans typing by PCR fingerprinting using (GACA)4 primers based on C. neoformans genome project data.

Four (GACA)(4) PCR fingerprinting sequences, used as markers to identify serotypes A and D and AD hybrids, were retrieved in four Cryptococcus neoformans genome databases. Their locations, both in serotype A and D genomes, were confirmed by chromosomal hybridization with specific probes. Two sequences were recognized to code for hypothetical functional proteins.

Four-year persistence of a single Candida albicans genotype causing bloodstream infections in a surgical ward proven by multilocus sequence typing.

The present study represents the first application of multilocus sequence typing to retrospectively investigate a suspected outbreak of Candida albicans bloodstream infection cases that occurred in the same hospital ward between July 1987 and October 1991. Results demonstrated that eight bloodstream infections were caused by the same strain, endemic in the ward, over a 4-year period.

Cryptococcus neoformans population includes hybrid strains homozygous at mating-type locus.

Recent attempts to characterise the hybrid strains of Cryptococcus neoformans have led to the identification of a cryptic population of hybrid strains ('H strains') with double DNA content but only a single mating-type allele. To verify a set of hypotheses concerning their origin, we investigated 14 previously isolated H strains and ten F1-progeny strains arising from H99 and JEC20 mating. The double DNA content was tested by flow cytometry; the presence of only one mating type was tested by amplifying 12 mating-type-specific genes and one gene unlinked with the mating-type locus (URA5). Analysis of the F1 progeny identified two H strains, and electrophoretic karyotyping confirmed the occurrence of genetic recombination. The simultaneous presence of the homozygous and heterozygous loci, and the fact that all of the F1-progeny strains presented a recombinant karyotype, suggest that the H strains originated from the post-meiotic random fusion of two of the four recombinant nuclei. Further studies are required to elucidate the role of the homozygous mating-type loci in the virulence of C. neoformans.

Molecular analysis of 311 Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from a 30-month ECMM survey of cryptococcosis in Europe.

During a European Confederation of Medical Mycology (ECMM) prospective survey of cryptococcosis in Europe (from July 1997 to December 1999) 655 cases were reported from 17 countries; 565 of the completed questionnaires were evaluable. Cryptococcosis was associated with HIV infection in 77% of cases (range 57.5-94%). Assessment of the laboratory data highlighted the lack of defined standard procedures for the diagnosis of cryptococcosis: the antigen test was not usually used for screening, the disease was mainly recognised when meningitis occurred (65% of patients) and, with the exception of a few cases, the extent of the infection was not investigated. Cryptococcus neoformans was the etiological agent in all of the cases except for six caused by C. gattii and four by other Cryptococcus species. A total of 311 C. neoformans strains were serotyped by Crypto Check latex agglutination, genotyped by PCR-fingerprinting using the (GACA)4 oligonucleotide as a single primer, and their mating type was determined by PCR of the STE20 alleles. Serotype A was the most represented (51% of the isolates), followed by serotype D (30%) and serotype AD (19%). PCR-fingerprinting analysis significantly increased the percentage of hybrid strains to 30%, as 6% of the serotype A and 28% of the serotype D isolates were of the VN3 or VN4 hybrid genotype. In addition, the mating type determinations revealed the MATa serotype A allele in one haploid strain and 28 hybrids, and hybrid isolates with a single mating type (four Aalpha and two Dalpha) were also identified. This is the first prospective survey to be carried out in Europe which has attempted to investigate the epidemiology of cryptococcosis and the population structure of C. neoformans, and the results obtained thus far show the widespread involvement of AD hybrid strains in C. neoformans infections.

The European Confederation of Medical Mycology (ECMM) survey of candidaemia in Italy: in vitro susceptibility of 375 Candida albicans isolates and biofilm production.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the in vitro antifungal susceptibility pattern of 375 Candida albicans bloodstream isolates recovered during the European Confederation of Medical Mycology survey of candidaemia performed in Lombardia, Italy and to test the ability to form biofilm. METHODS: In vitro susceptibility to flucytosine, fluconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, voriconazole and caspofungin was performed by broth microdilution following the NCCLS guidelines. Biofilm production was measured using the XTT reduction assay in 59 isolates selected as representative of different patterns of susceptibility to flucytosine and azoles. RESULTS: MICs (mg/L) at which 90% of the strains were inhibited were < or =0.25 for flucytosine, 0.25 for caspofungin, 4 for fluconazole and 0.06 for itraconazole, voriconazole and posaconazole. Flucytosine resistance was detected in five isolates and was associated with serotype B in 2/29 and serotype A in 3/346. Resistance to fluconazole was detected in 10 isolates; nine of these exhibited reduced susceptibility to the other azoles. Among the 10 patients with fluconazole-resistant C. albicans bloodstream infection, only one, an AIDS patient, had been previously treated with fluconazole. Biofilm production was observed in 23 isolates (39%) and was significantly associated with serotype B. No relationship was detected with the pattern of antifungal susceptibility. CONCLUSIONS: Resistance is uncommon in C. albicans isolates recovered from blood cultures, while biofilm production is a relatively frequent event. Periodic surveillance is warranted to monitor the incidence of in vitro antifungal resistance as well as of biofilm production.

The European Confederation of Medical Mycology (ECMM) survey of candidaemia in Italy: antifungal susceptibility patterns of 261 non-albicans Candida isolates from blood.

OBJECTIVES: To analyse the in vitro antifungal susceptibility of 261 non-albicans Candida bloodstream strains isolated during the European Confederation of Medical Mycology survey of candidaemia performed in Lombardia, Italy (September 1997-December 1999). METHODS: In vitro susceptibility to flucytosine, fluconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole and voriconazole was determined using the broth microdilution method described in the NCCLS M27-A guidelines. Etest strips were used to assess susceptibility to amphotericin B. In vitro findings were correlated with the patient's underlying condition and previous antifungal treatment. RESULTS: MICs (mg/L) at which 90% of the strains were inhibited were, respectively, 2 for flucytosine, 8 for fluconazole, 0.5 for itraconazole, 0.25 for voriconazole and 0.25 for posaconazole. Amphotericin B MIC endpoints were <0.50 mg/L in all the isolates tested. Flucytosine resistance was detected in 19 isolates (7%), mainly among Candida tropicalis strains (30%). Innate or secondary fluconazole resistance was detected in 13 strains (5%). Among the 13 patients with fluconazole-resistant Candida bloodstream infection, three were HIV positive, including one treated with fluconazole for oral candidosis; the four who were HIV negative had received the azole during the 2 weeks preceding the candidaemia. Cross-resistance among fluconazole and other azoles was a rare event. CONCLUSIONS: Resistance is still uncommon in non-albicans Candida species recovered from blood cultures. However, in fungaemias caused by C. tropicalis, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei, there is a high prevalence of resistance to fluconazole and flucytosine. Fluconazole resistance should be suspected in patients treated previously with azoles, mainly those with advanced HIV infection.