SPOTTED-LEAF7 targets the gene encoding ß-galactosidase9, which functions in rice growth and stress responses.

ß-Galactosidases (Bgals) remove terminal ß-D-galactosyl residues from the nonreducing ends of ß-D-galactosidases and oligosaccharides. Bgals are present in bacteria, fungi, animals, and plants and have various functions. Despite the many studies on the evolution of BGALs in plants, their functions remain obscure. Here, we identified rice (Oryza sativa) ß-galactosidase9 (OsBGAL9) as a direct target of the heat stress-induced transcription factor SPOTTED-LEAF7 (OsSPL7), as demonstrated by protoplast transactivation analysis and yeast 1-hybrid and electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Knockout plants for OsBGAL9 (Osbgal9) showed short stature and growth retardation. Histochemical ß-glucuronidase (GUS) analysis of transgenic lines harboring an OsBGAL9pro:GUS reporter construct revealed that OsBGAL9 is mainly expressed in internodes at the mature stage. OsBGAL9 expression was barely detectable in seedlings under normal conditions but increased in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Ectopic expression of OsBGAL9 enhanced resistance to the rice pathogens Magnaporthe oryzae and Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, as well as tolerance to cold and heat stress, while Osbgal9 mutant plants showed the opposite phenotypes. OsBGAL9 localized to the cell wall, suggesting that OsBGAL9 and its plant putative orthologs likely evolved functions distinct from those of its closely related animal enzymes. Enzyme activity assays and analysis of the cell wall composition of OsBGAL9 overexpression and mutant plants indicated that OsBGAL9 has activity toward galactose residues of arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs). Our study clearly demonstrates a role for a member of the BGAL family in AGP processing during plant development and stress responses.

Polyamines in Plant-Pathogen Interactions: Roles in Defense Mechanisms and Pathogenicity with Applications in Fungicide Development.

Polyamines (PAs), which are aliphatic polycationic compounds with a low molecular weight, are found in all living organisms and play essential roles in plant-pathogen interactions. Putrescine, spermidine, and spermine, the most common PAs in nature, respond to and function differently in plants and pathogens during their interactions. While plants use certain PAs to enhance their immunity, pathogens exploit PAs to facilitate successful invasion. In this review, we compile recent studies on the roles of PAs in plant-pathogen interactions, providing a comprehensive overview of their roles in both plant defense and pathogen pathogenicity. A thorough understanding of the functions of PAs and conjugated PAs highlights their potential applications in fungicide development. The creation of new fungicides and compounds derived from PAs demonstrates their promising potential for further research and innovation in this field.

Engineering effector-triggered immunity in rice: Obstacles and perspectives.

Improving rice immunity is one of the most effective approaches to reduce yield loss by biotic factors, with the aim of increasing rice production by 2050 amidst limited natural resources. Triggering a fast and strong immune response to pathogens, effector-triggered immunity (ETI) has intrigued scientists to intensively study and utilize the mechanisms for engineering highly resistant plants. The conservation of ETI components and mechanisms across species enables the use of ETI components to generate broad-spectrum resistance in plants. Numerous efforts have been made to introduce new resistance (R) genes, widen the effector recognition spectrum and generate on-demand R genes. Although engineering ETI across plant species is still associated with multiple challenges, previous attempts have provided an enhanced understanding of ETI mechanisms. Here, we provide a survey of recent reports in the engineering of rice R genes. In addition, we suggest a framework for future studies of R gene-effector interactions, including genome-scale investigations in both rice and pathogens, followed by structural studies of R proteins and effectors, and potential strategies to use important ETI components to improve rice immunity.

Sucrose preferentially promotes expression of OsWRKY7 and OsPR10a to enhance defense response to blast fungus in rice.

Sucrose controls various developmental and metabolic processes in plants. It also functions as a signaling molecule in the synthesis of carbohydrates, storage proteins, and anthocyanins, as well as in floral induction and defense response. We found that sucrose preferentially induced OsWRKY7, whereas other sugars (such as mannitol, glucose, fructose, galactose, and maltose) did not have the same effect. A hexokinase inhibitor mannoheptulose did not block the effect of sucrose, which is consequently thought to function directly. MG132 inhibited sucrose induction, suggesting that a repressor upstream of OsWRKY7 is degraded by the 26S proteasome pathway. The 3-kb promoter sequence of OsWRKY7 was preferentially induced by sucrose in the luciferase system. Knockout mutants of OsWRKY7 were more sensitive to the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, whereas the overexpression of OsWRKY7 enhanced the resistance, indicating that this gene is a positive regulator in the plant defense against this pathogen. The luciferase activity driven by the OsPR10a promoter was induced by OsWRKY7 and this transcription factor bound to the promoter region of OsPR10a, suggesting that OsWRKY7 directly controls the expression of OsPR10a. We conclude that sucrose promotes the transcript level of OsWRKY7, thereby increasing the expression of OsPR10a for the defense response in rice.

VOZ1 and VOZ2 transcription factors regulate arsenic tolerance and distribution in rice and Arabidopsis.

Rice is the major source of arsenic (As) intake in humans, as this staple crop readily accumulates As in the grain. Identifying the genes and molecular mechanisms underlying As accumulation and tolerance is a crucial step toward developing rice with reduced As levels. We identified 25 rice genes that improve As tolerance in yeast cells by expressing a complementary DNA (cDNA) library generated from As-treated rice roots. Among them, a zinc finger-type transcription factor VASCULAR PLANT ONE- ZINC FINGER 1 (OsVOZ1) (OsVOZ1) conferred the most pronounced As tolerance. OsVOZ1 inhibits As accumulation in yeast via activation of As efflux transporter Acr3p by post-transcriptional modification in yeast. The Arabidopsis voz1 voz2 double-knockout mutant exhibited As hypersensitivity, altered As concentrations in various tissues, and reduced As transport activity via the phloem. Arabidopsis and rice VOZs were highly expressed in phloem cells in various tissues, which are critical for As distribution in plant tissues. The double-knockdown and single-knockout plants of OsVOZ1 and OsVOZ2 reduced As accumulation in their seeds. These findings suggest that rice and Arabidopsis VOZs regulate the translocation of As into tissues by regulating the phloem loading of this element.

A rice gene encoding glycosyl hydrolase plays contrasting roles in immunity depending on the type of pathogens.

Because pathogens use diverse infection strategies, plants cannot use one-size-fits-all defence and modulate defence responses based on the nature of pathogens and pathogenicity mechanism. Here, we report that a rice glycoside hydrolase (GH) plays contrasting roles in defence depending on whether a pathogen is hemibiotrophic or necrotrophic. The Arabidopsis thaliana MORE1 (Magnaporthe oryzae resistance 1) gene, encoding a member of the GH10 family, is needed for resistance against M. oryzae and Alternaria brassicicola, a fungal pathogen infecting A. thaliana as a necrotroph. Among 13 rice genes homologous to MORE1, 11 genes were induced during the biotrophic or necrotrophic stage of infection by M. oryzae. CRISPR/Cas9-assisted disruption of one of them (OsMORE1a) enhanced resistance against hemibiotrophic pathogens M. oryzae and Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae but increased susceptibility to Cochliobolus miyabeanus, a necrotrophic fungus, suggesting that OsMORE1a acts as a double-edged sword depending on the mode of infection (hemibiotrophic vs. necrotrophic). We characterized molecular and cellular changes caused by the loss of MORE1 and OsMORE1a to understand how these genes participate in modulating defence responses. Although the underlying mechanism of action remains unknown, both genes appear to affect the expression of many defence-related genes. Expression patterns of the GH10 family genes in A. thaliana and rice suggest that other members also participate in pathogen defence.

Development of a Temperate Climate-Adapted indica Multi-stress Tolerant Rice Variety by Pyramiding Quantitative Trait Loci.

Successful cultivation of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in many Asian countries requires submergence stress tolerance at the germination and early establishment stages. Two quantitative trait loci, Sub1 (conferring submergence tolerance) and AG1 (conferring anaerobic germination), were recently pyramided into a single genetic background, without compromising any desirable agronomic traits, leading to the development of Ciherang-Sub1 + AG1 (CSA). However, little research has been conducted to enhance plant tolerance to abiotic stress (submergence) and biotic stress (rice blast), which occur in a damp climate following flooding. The BC2F5 breeding line was phenotypically characterized using the AvrPi9 isolate. The biotic and abiotic stress tolerance of selected lines was tested under submergence stress and anaerobic germination conditions, and lines tolerant to each stress condition were identified through phenotypic and gene expression analyses. The Ciherang-Sub1 + AG1 + Pi9 (CSA-Pi9) line showed similar agronomic performance to its recurrent parent, CSA, but had significantly reduced chalkiness in field trials conducted in temperate regions. Unexpectedly, the CSA-Pi9 line also showed salinity tolerance. Thus, the breeding line newly developed in this study, CSA-Pi9, functioned under stress conditions, in which Sub1, AG1, and Pi9 play a role and had superior grain quality traits compared to its recurrent parent in temperate regions. We speculate that CSA-Pi9 will enable the establishment of climate-resilient rice cropping systems, particularly in East Asia.

Proteomics and Metabolomics Studies on the Biotic Stress Responses of Rice: an Update.

Biotic stresses represent a serious threat to rice production to meet global food demand and thus pose a major challenge for scientists, who need to understand the intricate defense mechanisms. Proteomics and metabolomics studies have found global changes in proteins and metabolites during defense responses of rice exposed to biotic stressors, and also reported the production of specific secondary metabolites (SMs) in some cultivars that may vary depending on the type of biotic stress and the time at which the stress is imposed. The most common changes were seen in photosynthesis which is modified differently by rice plants to conserve energy, disrupt food supply for biotic stress agent, and initiate defense mechanisms or by biotic stressors to facilitate invasion and acquire nutrients, depending on their feeding style. Studies also provide evidence for the correlation between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and photorespiration and photosynthesis which can broaden our understanding on the balance of ROS production and scavenging in rice-pathogen interaction. Variation in the generation of phytohormones is also a key response exploited by rice and pathogens for their own benefit. Proteomics and metabolomics studies in resistant and susceptible rice cultivars upon pathogen attack have helped to identify the proteins and metabolites related to specific defense mechanisms, where choosing of an appropriate method to identify characterized or novel proteins and metabolites is essential, considering the outcomes of host-pathogen interactions. Despites the limitation in identifying the whole repertoire of responsive metabolites, some studies have shed light on functions of resistant-specific SMs. Lastly, we illustrate the potent metabolites responsible for resistance to different biotic stressors to provide valuable targets for further investigation and application.

Heat stress transcription factor OsSPL7 plays a critical role in reactive oxygen species balance and stress responses in rice.

The rice spotted leaf gene, OsSPL7, induces lesion mimic (LM) spots under heat stress. Herein, we provide several lines of evidence elucidating the importance of OsSPL7 in maintaining reactive oxygen species (ROS) balance via the regulation of downstream gene expression. osspl7 knockout (spl7ko) mutants showed LM and growth retardation. Transgenic rice lines strongly overexpressing OsSPL7 (SPL7OX-S) exhibited LM accompanied by accumulated H2O2, whereas moderate expressers of OsSPL7 (SPL7OX-M) did not, and neither of them exhibited severe growth defects. Transient expression of OsSPL7-GFP in rice protoplasts indicated that OsSPL7 localizes predominantly in the nucleus. Transcriptional activity assay suggested its function as a transcriptional activator in rice. Disease evaluation showed that both SPL7OX and spl7ko enhanced resistance to Magnaporthe oryzae and Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, the causal agents of blast and blight diseases in rice, respectively. Additionally, SPL7OX enhanced tolerance to cold stress, whereas spl7ko showed a phenotype opposite to the overexpression lines. RNA sequencing analyses identified four major groups of differentially expressed genes associated with LM, pathogen resistance, LM-pathogen resistance, and potential direct targets of OsSPL7. Collectively, our results suggest that OsSPL7 plays a critical role in plant growth and balancing ROS during biotic and abiotic stress.

Pi5 and Pii Paired NLRs Are Functionally Exchangeable and Confer Similar Disease Resistance Specificity.

Effector-triggered immunity (ETI) is an effective layer of plant defense initiated upon recognition of avirulence (Avr) effectors from pathogens by cognate plant disease resistance (R) proteins. In rice, a large number of R genes have been characterized from various cultivars and have greatly contributed to breeding programs to improve resistance against the rice blast pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae. The extreme diversity of R gene repertoires is thought to be a result of co-evolutionary history between rice and its pathogens including M. oryzae. Here we show that Pii is an allele of Pi5 by DNA sequence characterization and complementation analysis. Pii-1 and Pii-2 cDNAs were cloned by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction from the Pii -carrying cultivar Fujisaka5 . The complementation test in susceptible rice cultivar Dongjin demonstrated that the rice blast resistance mediated by Pii , similar to Pi5 , requires the presence of two nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat genes, Pii-1 and Pii-2 . Consistent with our hypothesis that Pi5 and Pii are functionally indistinguishable, the replacement of Pii-1 by Pi5-1 and Pii-2 by Pi5-2 , respectively, does not change the level of disease resistance to M. oryzae carrying AVR-Pii. Surprisingly, Exo70F3, required for Pii-mediated resistance, is dispensable for Pi5-mediated resistance. Based on our results, despite similarities observed between Pi5 and Pii, we hypothesize that Pi5 and Pii pairs require partially distinct mechanisms to function.