The relationship between parenting behavior and the personality of kindergarten children.

According to Cloninger's biosocial model of personality touching upon temperament and character, personality development is a lifelong adaptive process that begins in early childhood. Similarly, theories of parenting behavior and attachment predict that associations between personality and parenting behavior should be found in young children. The present study therefore had the goal to investigate, whether associations between parenting behavior and personality in terms of Cloninger's temperament and character dimensions previously found in adolescence and adults can already be observed in kindergarten children. This study assessed personality in a sample of 324 kindergarten children (169 girls/155 boys) aged 3-6 years (M age = 4.59, SD = 0.90). Parents rated their children's temperament and character using the JTCI 3-6 R questionnaire, which has been specifically developed to measure personality dimensions in three to six-year-olds according to Cloninger's model. Character traits (especially Self-Transcendence), which reach mature levels in adults, may not be reliably assessed in three-year-old children. Parenting behavior was documented using the DEAPQ-EL-GS self-report questionnaire measuring the parenting behavior dimensions Responsiveness and Demandingness. Correlation analyses revealed that responsive parenting behavior was positively related to the personality dimensions Reward Dependence, Self-Directedness, and Self-Transcendence. Demanding parenting behavior was positively related to the personality dimension Novelty Seeking, but negatively related to the personality dimensions Persistence, Self-Directedness and Cooperativeness. Although the cross-sectional design of our study prevents unequivocal conclusions about the causal direction of these associations, our results highlight possible differential consequences of responsive vs. demanding parenting behavior for personality development in children in line with theories of parenting behavior and attachment. Our results thus advance earlier work in adolescents and adults, by showing that parenting behavior influences the development of the child's personality according to Cloninger's biosocial model already in three to six-year-olds.

Trust toward humans and trust toward artificial intelligence are not associated: Initial insights from self-report and neurostructural brain imaging.

The present study examines whether self-reported trust in humans and self-reported trust in [(different) products with built-in] artificial intelligence (AI) are associated with one another and with brain structure. We sampled 90 healthy participants who provided self-reported trust in humans and AI and underwent brain structural magnetic resonance imaging assessment. We found that trust in humans, as measured by the trust facet of the personality inventory NEO-PI-R, and trust in AI products, as measured by items assessing attitudes toward AI and by a composite score based on items assessing trust toward products with in-built AI, were not significantly correlated. We also used a concomitant dimensional neuroimaging approach employing a data-driven source-based morphometry (SBM) analysis of gray-matter-density to investigate neurostructural associations with each trust domain. We found that trust in humans was negatively (and significantly) correlated with an SBM component encompassing striato-thalamic and prefrontal regions. We did not observe significant brain structural association with trust in AI. The present findings provide evidence that trust in humans and trust in AI seem to be dissociable constructs. While the personal disposition to trust in humans might be "hardwired" to the brain's neurostructural architecture (at least from an individual differences perspective), a corresponding significant link for the disposition to trust AI was not observed. These findings represent an initial step toward elucidating how different forms of trust might be processed on the behavioral and brain level.

Study protocol for a randomised controlled trial of an e-health stepped care approach for the treatment of internet use disorders versus a placebo condition: the SCAPIT study.

INTRODUCTION: Excessive internet use can lead to problems for some individuals. The WHO has introduced Gaming Disorder in the International Classification of Diseases-11 (ICD-11). Previous research has shown that other internet applications can cause serious mental health problems as well. It is important to provide measures of prevention, early intervention and therapy for internet use disorders (IUDs). METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The study 'Stepped Care Approach for Problematic Internet use Treatment' is a randomised, two-arm, parallel-group, observer-blind trial. The aim of the study is to investigate if a stepped care approach is effective to reduce symptom severity for IUD. The sample is primarily recruited online with a focus on employees in companies with support of health insurances. After screening, the stepped care approach depends on the success of the previous step-that is, the successful reduction of criteria-and comprise: (1) app-intervention with questionnaires and feedback, (2) two telephone counsellings (duration: 50 min) based on motivational interviewing, (3) online therapy over 17 weeks (15 weekly group sessions, eight individual sessions) based on cognitive-behavioural therapy. A follow-up is conducted after 6 months. A total of 860 participants will be randomised. Hierarchical testing procedure is used to test the coprimary endpoints number of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition and ICD-11 criteria. Primary analysis will be performed with a sequential logit model. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study has been approved by the Ethics Committees of the Universities of Lübeck (file number: 21-068), Mainz (file number: 2021-15907) and Berlin (file number: 015.2021). Results will be reported in accordance to the CONSORT statement. If the approach is superior to the control condition, it may serve as part of treatment for IUD. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: DRKS00025994.

Linking Gaming Disorder Tendencies in Children to Their Personality and Parental Gaming Behavior.

Playing computer and video games (so-called gaming) is of great popularity among children and adults. But for some people, gaming gets out of hand and can result in a Gaming Disorder (GD). Among others, high neuroticism and low conscientiousness are considered to play a role in the etiology of GD. Next to personality traits, environmental variables are debated such as the parental influence on children's gaming behavior. In detail, parental gaming behavior could have role model functions for children. Based on empirical observations and theoretical frameworks, it was hypothesized that higher tendencies to GD in children are associated with higher neuroticism, lower conscientiousness, and higher parental tendencies to GD. In an online survey N = 493 parents (n = 472 females; age: M = 36.30, SD = 5.46) rated their own and their children's (n = 233 girls, n = 260 boys; age: M = 6.03, SD = 2.30) tendencies to GD by the Gaming Disorder Test (GDT) and their children's personality by the Big Five Inventory (BFI). Neuroticism was significantly correlated with the GDT scores of boys (rho = 0.256, p = 0.001) and girls (rho = 0.300, p = 0.001), while a significant correlation with conscientiousness was only present for boys (rho = -0.196, p = 0.010). Parents' and children's general playing of computer and video games were interdependent [χ2(1) = 29.14, p < 0.001]; hence, if parents reported to be gamers, their children were more likely gamers as well. The GDT scores of parents and children were positively correlated (boys: rho = 0.36; p = 0.002; girls: rho = 0.33, p = 0.004). The results indicate that already in children the personality traits neuroticism and conscientiousness are associated with tendencies toward GD. Moreover, as gaming of parents and children was related to each other, it is conceivable that parents influence their children's gaming behavior via their own gaming behavior. Therefore, parents should be aware of their exemplary function for children and may overthink their own gaming behavior. But it has to be mentioned that the correlational nature of the present work allows no insights regarding causal relations.

Association between tendencies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the 2D:4D digit ratio: a cross-cultural replication in Germany and China.

Prenatal testosterone is considered to be a possible factor contributing to the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomatology, but findings regarding the connection between individual variations in prenatal testosterone exposure as (indirectly) indexed by the second-to-fourth digit (2D:4D) ratio and ADHD remain inconsistent. To clarify the inconsistent findings and to facilitate generalization on the association between subclinical variations in ADHD tendencies and lower 2D:4D ratios the current study applied a cross-cultural replication approach employing independent healthy adult cohorts from Germany and China. Samples from Germany and China were matched for gender and age (in each sample nmales = 96, nfemales = 96; ageGermany: M = 21.47, SD = 2.55; ageChina: M = 21.36, SD = 2.28). All participants filled in the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale Symptom Checklist (ASRS) and provided hand scans to measure 2D:4D ratios. The German sample had significantly higher 2D:4D ratios than the Chinese sample but in both samples males had significantly lower 2D:4D ratios than females. The hypothesised negative association between 2D:4D ratios and ADHD tendencies was observed on a descriptive level in German and Chinese males and with one exception in Chinese females. But only in German males correlations gained significance (range: r = -0.198 to r = -0.177). The observed effect sizes are in line with former research that was conducted in samples from different cultures. In future research on the connection between testosterone and ADHD not only prenatal but also postnatal testosterone as well as possible moderators like childhood maltreatment should be taken into account.

Oxytocin increases the pleasantness of affective touch and orbitofrontal cortex activity independent of valence.

Touch plays a crucial role in affiliative behavior and social communication. The neuropeptide oxytocin is released in response to touch and may act to facilitate the rewarding effects of social touch. However, no studies to date have determined whether oxytocin facilitates behavioral or neural responses to non-socially administered affective touch and possible differential effects of touch valence. In a functional MRI experiment using a randomized placebo-controlled, within-subject design in 40 male subjects we investigated the effects of intranasal oxytocin (24IU) on behavioral and neural responses to positive, neutral and negative valence touch administered to the arm via different types of materials at a frequency aimed to optimally stimulate C-fibers. Results showed that oxytocin significantly increased both the perceived pleasantness of touch and activation of the orbitofrontal cortex independent of touch valence. The effects of OT on touch-evoked orbitofrontal activation were also positively associated with basal oxytocin concentrations in blood. Additionally, anterior insula activity and the functional connectivity between the amygdala and right anterior insula were enhanced only in response to negative valence touch. Overall, the present study provides the first evidence that oxytocin may facilitate the rewarding effects of all types of touch, irrespective of valence.

The Effects of Intranasal Oxytocin on Neural and Behavioral Responses to Social Touch in the Form of Massage.

Manually-administered massage can potently increase endogenous oxytocin concentrations and neural activity in social cognition and reward regions and intranasal oxytocin can increase the pleasantness of social touch. In the present study, we investigated whether intranasal oxytocin modulates behavioral and neural responses to foot massage applied manually or by machine using a randomized placebo-controlled within-subject pharmaco-fMRI design. 46 male participants underwent blocks of massage of each type where they both received and imagined receiving the massage. Intranasal oxytocin significantly increased subjective pleasantness ratings of the manual but not the machine massage and neural responses in key regions involved in reward (orbitofrontal cortex, dorsal striatum and ventral tegmental area), social cognition (superior temporal sulcus and inferior parietal lobule), emotion and salience (amygdala and anterior cingulate and insula) and default mode networks (medial prefrontal cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, posterior cingulate, and precuneus) as well as a number of sensory and motor processing regions. Both neural and behavioral effects of oxytocin occurred independent of whether subjects thought the massage was applied by a male or female masseur. These findings support the importance of oxytocin for enhancing positive behavioral and neural responses to social touch in the form of manually administered massage and that a combination of intranasal oxytocin and massage may have therapeutic potential in autism. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: The Effects of Oxytocin on Social Touch; registration ID: NCT03278860; URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03278860.

Blood oxytocin levels are not associated with ADHD tendencies and emotionality in healthy adults.

Oxytocin (OT) regulates social and emotional behaviour. Core symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) include social and emotional dysfunctions potentially associated with lower endogenous OT levels. A dimensional approach was employed to examine relationships between plasma OT levels, ADHD tendencies, and emotionality in a healthy adult sample. Moreover, we aimed at replication of results regarding ADHD tendencies and emotionality from our previous work. Subjects were N = 110 healthy Chinese males (Mage: 22.01 ± 2.02 years). Variables of interest were plasma OT levels, individual variations in ADHD tendencies assessed via the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale Symptom Checklist (ASRS), and positive and negative emotionality assessed via primary emotional traits of the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (ANPS). Hypotheses were tested by means of (partial) Spearman and Pearson correlations. Plasma OT levels were neither related to ADHD tendencies, nor to primary emotional traits. ADHD tendencies were significantly related to higher negative emotionality (correlation coefficients: r= .35 to r = .47) and lower positive emotionality (correlation coefficients: r= -.42 to r = -.36). The absence of associations between plasma OT levels and ADHD tendencies, primary emotional traits, and emotionality might be explained by the lack of robust associations between peripheral and central OT levels. Results regarding ADHD tendencies and emotionality replicate previous findings, emphasizing that (sub-clinically) elevated ADHD tendencies associate with dysregulated emotionality. Future studies examining the role of endogenous OT in ADHD should explore the generalizability of the present findings to women and patients with ADHD.

Depression Is Associated With the Absence of Sex Differences in the 2D:4D Ratio of the Right Hand.

The 2D:4D digit ratio reflects prenatal testosterone relative to estradiol exposure of a developing embryo. Higher levels of prenatal testosterone have been related to lower 2D:4D ratios. In addition, higher 2D:4D ratios have been associated with female gender, neuroticism, and depression severity. Therefore, the present study investigated whether 2D:4D ratios differ between inpatients with major depression and matched healthy controls and whether 2D:4D ratios correlate with depression severity. We examined 139 inpatients diagnosed with major depression according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) criteria and 137 healthy controls regarding 2D:4D ratios of both hands and BDI-II scores. While we observed significant sex differences in the 2D:4D ratio of the right hand in the healthy control group (women on average showed a significantly higher 2D:4D ratio), no such differences were found in the group of depressed patients. The 2D:4D digit ratios did not correlate with depression severity even when examined for group and sex separately. We conclude that major depression is associated with an absence of sex differences in the 2D:4D ratio.

Individual differences in tendencies to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and emotionality: empirical evidence in young healthy adults from Germany and China.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity but also by negative emotionality. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether subclinical ADHD tendencies are associated with negative emotionality in healthy adult samples. The present study is of special interest since it investigated negative emotionality with a questionnaire anchored in Neuroscience Theory-the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (ANPS). Furthermore, through the investigation of samples in two countries, namely Germany and China, the study aims to replicate the results across different cultures. German (n = 377; age: M = 23.25, SD = 8.47; 117 males) and Chinese (n = 389; age: M = 20.74, SD = 2.47; 279 males) subjects completed ANPS (primary emotional traits) and ASRS (ADHD tendencies) questionnaires in an online survey. Principal component analysis of the ANPS revealed one factor for negative emotionality and one factor for positive emotionality. Partial correlations between ANPS and ASRS (controlled for age) were conducted separately for nation and gender. The same correlation patterns between ADHD tendencies and negative emotionality could be found in male and female German/Chinese participants (range r= .189 to r = .352). Higher negative emotionality was always significantly associated with more inattentive, hyperactive/impulsive, or combined tendencies. However, significant negative correlations between ADHD tendencies and positive emotionality could only be observed in Chinese males (range r = - .264 to r = - .296). The results are in line with former findings in children and show that also in healthy adults, associations between negative emotionality and ADHD tendencies are robustly visible. The results were independent of the cultural background, indicating a general association between ADHD tendencies and negative emotionality, even in healthy adults.

Anxiety-Related Coping Styles, Social Support, and Internet Use Disorder.

Objective: The Internet can offer a seemingly safe haven for those being disappointed by relationships in the "offline world". Although the Internet can provide lonely people with opportunities to seek for help and support online, complete withdrawal from the offline world comes with costs. It is discussed if people can even become "addicted" to the Internet. Of note, meanwhile, many researchers prefer the term Internet use disorder (IUD) instead of using the term "Internet addiction". To illustrate the importance of one's own social network supporting a person in everyday life, we investigated, for the first time to our knowledge, how social resources in terms of quality and quantity might represent a buffer against the development of IUD. Furthermore, anxiety related coping styles are investigated as a further independent variable likely impacting on the development of an IUD. Method: In the present work, N = 567 participants (n = 164 males and n = 403 females; Mage = 23.236; SDage = 8.334) filled in a personality questionnaire assessing individual differences in cognitive avoidant and vigilant anxiety processing, ergo, traits describing individual differences in everyday coping styles/modes. Moreover, all participants provided information on individual differences in tendencies toward IUD, the perceived quality of social support received, and the size of their social network (hence a quantity measure). Results: Participants with larger social networks and higher scores in the received social support reported the lowest tendencies toward IUD in our data. A vigilant coping style was positively correlated with tendencies toward IUD, whereas no robust associations could be observed between a cognitive avoidant coping style and tendencies toward IUD. Hierarchical linear regression underlined an important predictive role of the interaction term of vigilance in ego-threat scenarios and perceived quality of social support. Conclusion: The current study not only yields support for the hypothesis that the size of one's own social network as well as the perceived quality of social support received in everyday life present putative resilience factors against developing IUD. It also supports the approach that special coping styles are needed to make use of the social support offered.

Foot massage evokes oxytocin release and activation of orbitofrontal cortex and superior temporal sulcus.

Massage may be an important method for increasing endogenous oxytocin concentrations and of potential therapeutic benefit in disorders with social dysfunction such as autism where basal oxytocin levels are typically reduced. Here we investigated oxytocin release and associated neural responses using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) during hand- or machine-administered massage. 40 adult male subjects received 10 min of light foot massage either by hand or machine in a counterbalanced order and then rated pleasure, intensity, arousal and how much they would pay for the massage. Blood samples were taken before and after each massage condition to determine plasma oxytocin concentrations. Neural responses from medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex, superior temporal sulcus and somatosensory cortex were measured (fNIRS oxy-Hb) together with skin conductance responses (SCR), ratings of the massage experience, autistic traits and sensitivity to social touch. Results showed subjects gave higher ratings of pleasure, but not intensity or arousal, after hand- compared with machine-administered massage and there were no differential effects on SCR. Subjects were also willing to pay more for the hand massage. Plasma oxytocin increased after both massage by hand or machine, but more potently after massage by hand. Both basal oxytocin concentrations and increases evoked by hand-, but not machine-administered massage, were negatively associated with trait autism and attitudes towards social touch, but massage by hand-evoked changes were significant in higher as well as lower trait individuals. Increased neural responses to hand vs. machine-administered massage were found in posterior superior temporal sulcus and medial/lateral orbitofrontal cortex but not somatosensory cortex. Orbitofrontal cortex and superior temporal cortex activation during hand massage was associated with the amount of money subjects were willing to pay and between orbitofrontal cortex activation and autism scores. Thus, hand-administered massage can potently increase oxytocin release and activity in brain regions involved in social cognition and reward but not sensory aspects of affective touch. Massage by hand induced changes in both oxytocin concentrations and neural circuits involved in processing social affective trust may have therapeutic potential in the context of autism.