Herpesviruses assimilate kinesin to produce motorized viral particles.

Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses initiate infection in exposed mucosal tissues and, unlike most viruses, spread rapidly to sensory and autonomic nerves where life-long latency is established1. Recurrent infections arise sporadically from the peripheral nervous system throughout the life of the host, and invasion of the central nervous system may occur, with severe outcomes2. These viruses directly recruit cellular motors for transport along microtubules in nerve axons, but how the motors are manipulated to deliver the virus to neuronal nuclei is not understood. Here, using herpes simplex virus type I and pseudorabies virus as model alphaherpesviruses, we show that a cellular kinesin motor is captured by virions in epithelial cells, carried between cells, and subsequently used in neurons to traffic to nuclei. Viruses assembled in the absence of kinesin are not neuroinvasive. The findings explain a critical component of the alphaherpesvirus neuroinvasive mechanism and demonstrate that these viruses assimilate a cellular protein as an essential proviral structural component. This principle of viral assimilation may prove relevant to other virus families and offers new strategies to combat infection.

Candida albicans translocation through the intestinal epithelial barrier is promoted by fungal zinc acquisition and limited by NFκB-mediated barrier protection.

The opportunistic fungal pathogen Candida albicans thrives on human mucosal surfaces as a harmless commensal, but frequently causes infections under certain predisposing conditions. Translocation across the intestinal barrier into the bloodstream by intestine-colonizing C. albicans cells serves as the main source of disseminated candidiasis. However, the host and microbial mechanisms behind this process remain unclear. In this study we identified fungal and host factors specifically involved in infection of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) using dual-RNA sequencing. Our data suggest that host-cell damage mediated by the peptide toxin candidalysin-encoding gene ECE1 facilitates fungal zinc acquisition. This in turn is crucial for the full virulence potential of C. albicans during infection. IECs in turn exhibit a filamentation- and damage-specific response to C. albicans infection, including NFκB, MAPK, and TNF signaling. NFκB activation by IECs limits candidalysin-mediated host-cell damage and mediates maintenance of the intestinal barrier and cell-cell junctions to further restrict fungal translocation. This is the first study to show that candidalysin-mediated damage is necessary for C. albicans nutrient acquisition during infection and to explain how IECs counteract damage and limit fungal translocation via NFκB-mediated maintenance of the intestinal barrier.

Two-speed genome evolution drives pathogenicity in fungal pathogens of animals.

The origins and evolution of virulence in amphibian-infecting chytrids Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) are largely unknown. Here, we use deep nanopore sequencing of Bsal and comparative genomics against 21 high-quality genome assemblies that span the fungal Chytridiomycota. We discover that Bsal has the most repeat-rich genome of the Chytridiomycota, comprising 40.9% repetitive elements; this genome has expanded to more than 3× the length of its conspecific Bd, with autonomous and fully functional LTR/Gypsy elements contributing significantly to the expansion. The M36 metalloprotease virulence factors are highly expanded (n = 177) in Bsal, most of which (53%) are flanked by transposable elements, suggesting they have a repeat-associated expansion. We find enrichment upstream of M36 metalloprotease genes of three novel repeat families belonging to the repeat superfamily of LINEs that are implicated with gene copy number variations. Additionally, Bsal has a highly compartmentalized genome architecture, with virulence factors enriched in gene-sparse/repeat-rich compartments, while core conserved genes are enriched in gene-rich/repeat-poor compartments. Genes upregulated during infection are primarily found in the gene-sparse/repeat-rich compartment in both Bd and Bsal. Furthermore, genes with signatures of positive selection in Bd are enriched in repeat-rich regions, suggesting these regions are a cradle for the evolution of chytrid pathogenicity. These are the hallmarks of two-speed genome evolution, and this study provides evidence of two-speed genomes in an animal pathogen, shedding light on the evolution of fungal pathogens of vertebrates driving global declines and extinctions.

The glycerophosphocholine acyltransferase Gpc1 contributes to phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, long-term viability, and embedded hyphal growth in Candida albicans.

Candida albicans is a commensal fungus, opportunistic pathogen, and the most common cause of fungal infection in humans. The biosynthesis of phosphatidylcholine (PC), a major eukaryotic glycerophospholipid, occurs through two primary pathways. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae and some plants, a third PC synthesis pathway, the PC deacylation/reacylation pathway (PC-DRP), has been characterized. PC-DRP begins with the acylation of the lipid turnover product, glycerophosphocholine (GPC), by the GPC acyltransferase, Gpc1, to form Lyso-PC. Lyso-PC is then acylated by lysolipid acyltransferase, Lpt1, to produce PC. Importantly, GPC, the substrate for Gpc1, is a ubiquitous metabolite available within the host. GPC is imported by C. albicans, and deletion of the major GPC transporter, Git3, leads to decreased virulence in a murine model. Here we report that GPC can be directly acylated in C. albicans by the protein product of orf19.988, a homolog of ScGpc1. Through lipidomic studies, we show loss of Gpc1 leads to a decrease in PC levels. This decrease occurs in the absence of exogenous GPC, indicating that the impact on PC levels may be greater in the human host where GPC is available. A gpc1Δ/Δ strain exhibits several sensitivities to antifungals that target lipid metabolism. Furthermore, loss of Gpc1 results in both a hyphal growth defect in embedded conditions and a decrease in long-term cell viability. These results demonstrate for the first time the importance of Gpc1 and this alternative PC biosynthesis route (PC-DRP) to the physiology of a pathogenic fungus.

Characterisation of the spatio-temporal localisation of a pan-Mucorales specific antigen during germination and immunohistochemistry.

BACKGROUND: Mucormycosis is an aggressive, invasive fungal infection caused by moulds in the order Mucorales. Early diagnosis is key to improving patient prognosis, yet relies on insensitive culture or non-specific histopathology. A pan-Mucorales specific monoclonal antibody (mAb), TG11, was recently developed. Here, we investigate the spatio-temporal localisation of the antigen and specificity of the mAb for immunohistochemistry. METHODS: We use immunofluorescence (IF) microscopy to assess antigen localisation in eleven Mucorales species of clinical importance and live imaging of Rhizopus arrhizus germination. Immunogold transmission electron microscopy (immunoTEM) reveals the sub-cellular location of mAb TG11 binding. Finally, we perform immunohistochemistry of R. arrhizus in an ex vivo murine lung infection model alongside lung infection by Aspergillus fumigatus. RESULTS: IF revealed TG11 antigen production at the emerging hyphal tip and along the length of growing hyphae in all Mucorales except Sakasenea. Timelapse imaging revealed early antigen exposure during spore germination and along the growing hypha. ImmunoTEM confirmed mAb TG11 binding to the hyphal cell wall only. The TG11 mAb specifically stained Mucorales but not Aspergillus hyphae in infected murine lung tissue. CONCLUSIONS: TG11 detects early hyphal growth and has valuable potential for diagnosing mucormycosis by enhancing discriminatory detection of Mucorales in tissue.

Atrial Fibrillation Detected before or after Stroke: Role of Anticoagulation.

BACKGROUND: Atrial fibrillation (AF) known before ischemic stroke (KAF) has been postulated to be an independent category with a recurrence risk higher than that of AF detected after stroke (AFDAS). However, it is unknown whether this risk difference is confounded by pre-existing anticoagulation, which is most common in KAF and also indicates a high ischemic stroke recurrence risk. METHODS: Individual patient data analysis from 5 prospective cohorts of anticoagulated patients following AF-associated ischemic stroke. We compared the primary (ischemic stroke recurrence) and secondary outcome (all-cause death) among patients with AFDAS versus KAF and among anticoagulation-naïve versus previously anticoagulated patients using multivariable Cox, Fine-Gray models, and goodness-of-fit statistics to investigate the relative independent prognostic importance of AF-category and pre-existing anticoagulation. RESULTS: Of 4,357 patients, 1,889 (43%) had AFDAS and 2,468 (57%) had KAF, while 3,105 (71%) were anticoagulation-naïve before stroke and 1,252 (29%) were previously anticoagulated. During 6,071 patient-years of follow-up, we observed 244 recurrent strokes and 661 deaths. Only pre-existing anticoagulation (but not KAF) was independently associated with a higher hazard for stroke recurrence in both Cox and Fine-Gray models. Models incorporating pre-existing anticoagulation showed better fit than those with AF category; adding AF-category did not result in better model fit. Neither pre-existing anticoagulation nor KAF were independently associated with death. CONCLUSION: Our findings challenge the notion that KAF and AFDAS are clinically relevant and distinct prognostic entities. Instead of attributing an independently high stroke recurrence risk to KAF, future research should focus on the causes of stroke despite anticoagulation to develop improved preventive treatments. ANN NEUROL 2023;94:43-54.

Impact of Cerebral Microbleeds in Stroke Patients with Atrial Fibrillation.

OBJECTIVES: Cerebral microbleeds are associated with the risks of ischemic stroke and intracranial hemorrhage, causing clinical dilemmas for antithrombotic treatment decisions. We aimed to evaluate the risks of intracranial hemorrhage and ischemic stroke associated with microbleeds in patients with atrial fibrillation treated with vitamin K antagonists, direct oral anticoagulants, antiplatelets, and combination therapy (i.e. concurrent oral anticoagulant and antiplatelet). METHODS: We included patients with documented atrial fibrillation from the pooled individual patient data analysis by the Microbleeds International Collaborative Network. Risks of subsequent intracranial hemorrhage and ischemic stroke were compared between patients with and without microbleeds, stratified by antithrombotic use. RESULTS: A total of 7,839 patients were included. The presence of microbleeds was associated with an increased relative risk of intracranial hemorrhage (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] = 2.74, 95% confidence interval = 1.76-4.26) and ischemic stroke (aHR = 1.29, 95% confidence interval = 1.04-1.59). For the entire cohort, the absolute incidence of ischemic stroke was higher than intracranial hemorrhage regardless of microbleed burden. However, for the subgroup of patients taking combination of anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy, the absolute risk of intracranial hemorrhage exceeded that of ischemic stroke in those with 2 to 4 microbleeds (25 vs 12 per 1,000 patient-years) and ≥ 11 microbleeds (94 vs 48 per 1,000 patient-years). INTERPRETATION: Patients with atrial fibrillation and high burden of microbleeds receiving combination therapy have a tendency of higher rate of intracranial hemorrhage than ischemic stroke, with potential for net harm. Further studies are needed to help optimize stroke preventive strategies in this high-risk group. ANN NEUROL 2023;94:61-74.

Three-outcome designs for external pilot trials with progression criteria.

BACKGROUND: Whether or not to progress from a pilot study to a definitive trial is often guided by pre-specified quantitative progression criteria with three possible outcomes. Although the choice of these progression criteria will help to determine the statistical properties of the pilot trial, there is a lack of research examining how they, or the pilot sample size, should be determined. METHODS: We review three-outcome trial designs originally proposed in the phase II oncology setting and extend these to the case of external pilots, proposing a unified framework based on univariate hypothesis tests and the control of frequentist error rates. We apply this framework to an example and compare against a simple two-outcome alternative. RESULTS: We find that three-outcome designs can be used in the pilot setting, although they are not generally more efficient than simpler two-outcome alternatives. We show that three-outcome designs can help allow for other sources of information or other stakeholders to feed into progression decisions in the event of a borderline result, but this will come at the cost of a larger pilot sample size than the two-outcome case. We also show that three-outcome designs can be used to allow adjustments to be made to the intervention or trial design before commencing the definitive trial, providing the effect of the adjustment can be accurately predicted at the pilot design stage. An R package, tout, is provided to optimise progression criteria and pilot sample size. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed three-outcome framework provides a way to optimise pilot trial progression criteria and sample size in a way that leads to desired operating characteristics. It can be applied whether or not an adjustment following the pilot trial is anticipated, but will generally lead to larger sample size requirements than simpler two-outcome alternatives.

External validation of the SI2NCAL2C score for outcomes following cerebral venous thrombosis.

OBJECTIVES: Prognostication for cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT) remains difficult. We sought to validate the SI2NCAL2C score in an international cohort. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The SI2NCAL2C score was originally developed to predict poor outcome (modified Rankin Scale (mRS) 3-6) at 6 months, and mortality at 30 days and 1 year using data from the International CVT Consortium. The SI2NCAL2C score uses 9 variables: the absence of any female-sex-specific risk factors, intracerebral hemorrhage, central nervous system infection, focal neurological deficits, coma, age, lower level of hemoglobin, higher level of glucose, and cancer. The ACTION-CVT study was an international retrospective study that enrolled consecutive patients across 27 centers. The poor outcome score was validated using 90-day mRS due to lack of follow-up at the 6-month time-point in the ACTION-CVT cohort. Model performance was evaluated using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) and calibration plots. Missing data were imputed using the additive regression and predictive mean matching methods. Bootstrapping was performed with 1000 iterations. RESULTS: Mortality data were available for 950 patients and poor outcome data were available for 587 of 1,025 patients enrolled in ACTION-CVT. Compared to the International CVT Consortium, the ACTION-CVT cohort was older, less often female, and with milder clinical presentation. Mortality was 2.5% by 30 days and 6.0% by one year. At 90-days, 16.7% had a poor outcome. The SI2NCAL2C score had an AUC of 0.74 [95% CI 0.69-0.79] for 90-day poor outcome, 0.72 [0.60-0.82] for mortality by 30 days, and 0.82 [0.76-0.88] for mortality by one year. CONCLUSIONS: The SI2NCAL2C score had acceptable to good performance in an international external validation cohort. The SI2NCAL2C score warrants additional validation studies in diverse populations and clinical implementation studies.

Ultra-Long Transfers for Endovascular Thrombectomy-Mission Impossible?: The Australia-New Zealand Experience.

BACKGROUND: Endovascular thrombectomy (EVT) access in remote areas is limited. Preliminary data suggest that long distance transfers for EVT may be beneficial; however, the magnitude and best imaging strategy at the referring center remains uncertain. We hypothesized that patients transferred >300 miles would benefit from EVT, achieving rates of functional independence (modified Rankin Scale [mRS] score of 0-2) at 3 months similar to those patients treated at the comprehensive stroke center in the randomized EVT extended window trials and that the selection of patients with computed tomography perfusion (CTP) at the referring site would be associated with ordinal shift toward better outcomes on the mRS. METHODS: This is a retrospective analysis of patients transferred from 31 referring hospitals >300 miles (measured by the most direct road distance) to 9 comprehensive stroke centers in Australia and New Zealand for EVT consideration (April 2016 through May 2021). RESULTS: There were 131 patients; the median age was 64 [53-74] years and the median baseline National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score was 16 [12-22]. At baseline, 79 patients (60.3%) had noncontrast CT+CT angiography, 52 (39.7%) also had CTP. At the comprehensive stroke center, 114 (87%) patients underwent cerebral angiography, and 96 (73.3%) proceeded to EVT. At 3 months, 62 patients (48.4%) had an mRS score of 0 to 2 and 81 (63.3%) mRS score of 0 to 3. CTP selection at the referring site was not associated with better ordinal scores on the mRS at 3 months (mRS median of 2 [1-3] versus 3 [1-6] in the patients selected with noncontrast CT+CT angiography, P=0.1). Nevertheless, patients selected with CTP were less likely to have an mRS score of 5 to 6 (odds ratio 0.03 [0.01-0.19]; P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: In selected patients transferred >300 miles, there was a benefit for EVT, with outcomes similar to those treated in the comprehensive stroke center in the EVT extended window trials. Remote hospital CTP selection was not associated with ordinal mRS improvement, but was associated with fewer very poor 3-month outcomes.

An ESCRT/VPS4 Envelopment Trap To Examine the Mechanism of Alphaherpesvirus Assembly and Transport in Neurons.

The assembly and egress of alphaherpesviruses, including herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and pseudorabies virus (PRV), within neurons is poorly understood. A key unresolved question is the structure of the viral particle that moves by anterograde transport along the axon, and two alternative mechanisms have been described. In the "married" model, capsids acquire their envelopes in the cell body and then traffic along axons as enveloped virions within a bounding organelle. In the "separate" model, nonenveloped capsids travel from the cell body into and along the axon, eventually encountering their envelopment organelles at a distal site, such as the nerve cell terminal. Here, we describe an "envelopment trap" to test these models using the dominant negative terminal endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) component VPS4-EQ. Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged VPS4-EQ was used to arrest HSV-1 or PRV capsid envelopment, inhibit downstream trafficking, and GFP-label envelopment intermediates. We found that GFP-VPS4-EQ inhibited trafficking of HSV-1 capsids into and along the neurites and axons of mouse CAD cells and rat embryonic primary cortical neurons, consistent with egress via the married pathway. In contrast, transport of HSV-1 capsids was unaffected in the neurites of human SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cells, consistent with the separate mechanism. Unexpectedly, PRV (generally thought to utilize the married pathway) also appeared to employ the separate mechanism in SK-N-SH cells. We propose that apparent differences in the methods of HSV-1 and PRV egress are more likely a reflection of the host neuron in which transport is studied rather than true biological differences between the viruses themselves. IMPORTANCE Alphaherpesviruses, including herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and pseudorabies virus (PRV), are pathogens of the nervous system. They replicate in the nerve cell body and then travel great distances along axons to reach nerve termini and spread to adjacent epithelial cells; however, key aspects of how these viruses travel along axons remain controversial. Here, we test two alternative mechanisms for transport, the married and separate models, by blocking envelope assembly, a critical step in viral egress. When we arrest formation of the viral envelope using a mutated component of the cellular ESCRT apparatus, we find that entry of viral particles into axons is blocked in some types of neurons but not others. This approach allows us to determine whether envelope assembly occurs prior to entry of viruses into axons or afterwards and, thus, to distinguish between the alternative models for viral transport.

Oral Anticoagulants in the Oldest Old with Recent Stroke and Atrial Fibrillation.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the safety and effectiveness of direct oral anticoagulants (DOAC) versus vitamin K antagonists (VKA) after recent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) aged ≥85 years. METHODS: Individual patient data analysis from seven prospective stroke cohorts. We compared DOAC versus VKA treatment among patients with AF and recent stroke (<3 months) aged ≥85 versus <85 years. Primary outcome was the composite of recurrent stroke, intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) and all-cause death. We used simple, adjusted, and weighted Cox regression to account for confounders. We calculated the net benefit of DOAC versus VKA by balancing stroke reduction against the weighted ICH risk. RESULTS: In total, 5,984 of 6,267 (95.5%) patients were eligible for analysis. Of those, 1,380 (23%) were aged ≥85 years and 3,688 (62%) received a DOAC. During 6,874 patient-years follow-up, the impact of anticoagulant type (DOAC versus VKA) on the hazard for the composite outcome did not differ between patients aged ≥85 (HR≥85y  = 0.65, 95%-CI [0.52, 0.81]) and < 85 years (HR<85y  = 0.79, 95%-CI [0.66, 0.95]) in simple (pinteraction  = 0.129), adjusted (pinteraction  = 0.094) or weighted (pinteraction  = 0.512) models. Analyses on recurrent stroke, ICH and death separately were consistent with the primary analysis, as were sensitivity analyses using age dichotomized at 90 years and as a continuous variable. DOAC had a similar net clinical benefit in patients aged ≥85 (+1.73 to +2.66) and < 85 years (+1.90 to +3.36 events/100 patient-years for ICH-weights 1.5 to 3.1). INTERPRETATION: The favorable profile of DOAC over VKA in patients with AF and recent stroke was maintained in the oldest old. ANN NEUROL 2022;91:78-88.

Clinical outcomes of delayed mechanical thrombectomy: Descriptive analysis and development of a screening tool.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Limited data guide the selection of patients with large vessel occlusion ischaemic stroke who may benefit from referral to a distant tertiary centre for mechanical thrombectomy (MT). We aimed to characterize this population, describe clinical outcomes and develop a screening system to identify patients most likely to benfit from delayed mechanical thrombectomy (MT). METHODS: We undertook a retrospective cohort analysis enrolling patients transferred from regional sites to one of two MT comprehensive stroke units with a time from non-contrast computed tomography (NCCT) of the brain to reperfusion of 4 h or more. We describe Alberta Stroke Programme Early Computed Tomography Score (ASPECTS), National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) and modified Rankin Scale (mRS) in our patients and compare these patients to those in extended-time-window trials. Lastly, we developed and validated a scoring model to help clinicians identify appropriate patients based on variables associated with poor outcomes. RESULTS: We included 563 patients, 46% of whom received thrombolysis; the median (interquartile range [IQR]) ASPECTS was 8 (7-10) and the median (IQR) NIHSS score was 16 (11-20). The median (IQR) symptom to mechanical reperfusion time was 390 (300-580) min. Eight patients (1%) had a symptomatic haemorrhage. We achieved good clinical outcome (defined as mRS score ≤2) in 299 patients (54%). Age, diabetes, NIHSS score and ASPECTS were used to create a weighted scoring system with a validated area under the curve of 0.83 (95% confidence interval 0.74-0.92). CONCLUSION: Our study shows, in highly selected patients, that delayed MT many hours after baseline NCCT is associated with good clinical outcomes. However, older patients with diabetes, high NIHSS score and low ASPECTS may not benefit from transfer to a hub centre many hours away for MT in this model of care.

Control of chemokine-guided cell migration by ligand sequestration.

Primordial germ cell (PGC) migration in zebrafish is directed by the chemokine SDF-1a that activates its receptor CXCR4b. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms controlling the distribution of this chemoattractant in vivo. We demonstrate that the activity of a second SDF-1/CXCL12 receptor, CXCR7, is crucial for proper migration of PGCs toward their targets. We show that CXCR7 functions primarily in the somatic environment rather than within the migrating cells. In CXCR7 knocked-down embryos, the PGCs exhibit a phenotype that signifies defects in SDF-1a gradient formation as the cells fail to polarize effectively and to migrate toward their targets. Indeed, somatic cells expressing CXCR7 show enhanced internalization of the chemokine suggesting that CXCR7 acts as a sink for SDF-1a, thus allowing the dynamic changes in the transcription of sdf-1a to be mirrored by similar dynamics at the protein level.

Direct Oral Anticoagulants Versus Warfarin in the Treatment of Cerebral Venous Thrombosis (ACTION-CVT): A Multicenter International Study.

BACKGROUND: A small randomized controlled trial suggested that dabigatran may be as effective as warfarin in the treatment of cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT). We aimed to compare direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) to warfarin in a real-world CVT cohort. METHODS: This multicenter international retrospective study (United States, Europe, New Zealand) included consecutive patients with CVT treated with oral anticoagulation from January 2015 to December 2020. We abstracted demographics and CVT risk factors, hypercoagulable labs, baseline imaging data, and clinical and radiological outcomes from medical records. We used adjusted inverse probability of treatment weighted Cox-regression models to compare recurrent cerebral or systemic venous thrombosis, death, and major hemorrhage in patients treated with warfarin versus DOACs. We performed adjusted inverse probability of treatment weighted logistic regression to compare recanalization rates on follow-up imaging across the 2 treatments groups. RESULTS: Among 1025 CVT patients across 27 centers, 845 patients met our inclusion criteria. Mean age was 44.8 years, 64.7% were women; 33.0% received DOAC only, 51.8% received warfarin only, and 15.1% received both treatments at different times. During a median follow-up of 345 (interquartile range, 140-720) days, there were 5.68 recurrent venous thrombosis, 3.77 major hemorrhages, and 1.84 deaths per 100 patient-years. Among 525 patients who met recanalization analysis inclusion criteria, 36.6% had complete, 48.2% had partial, and 15.2% had no recanalization. When compared with warfarin, DOAC treatment was associated with similar risk of recurrent venous thrombosis (aHR, 0.94 [95% CI, 0.51-1.73]; P=0.84), death (aHR, 0.78 [95% CI, 0.22-2.76]; P=0.70), and rate of partial/complete recanalization (aOR, 0.92 [95% CI, 0.48-1.73]; P=0.79), but a lower risk of major hemorrhage (aHR, 0.35 [95% CI, 0.15-0.82]; P=0.02). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with CVT, treatment with DOACs was associated with similar clinical and radiographic outcomes and favorable safety profile when compared with warfarin treatment. Our findings need confirmation by large prospective or randomized studies.

Deletion of the Pseudorabies Virus gE/gI-US9p complex disrupts kinesin KIF1A and KIF5C recruitment during egress, and alters the properties of microtubule-dependent transport in vitro.

During infection of neurons by alphaherpesviruses including Pseudorabies virus (PRV) and Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) viral nucleocapsids assemble in the cell nucleus, become enveloped in the cell body then traffic into and down axons to nerve termini for spread to adjacent epithelia. The viral membrane protein US9p and the membrane glycoprotein heterodimer gE/gI play critical roles in anterograde spread of both HSV-1 and PRV, and several models exist to explain their function. Biochemical studies suggest that PRV US9p associates with the kinesin-3 motor KIF1A in a gE/gI-stimulated manner, and the gE/gI-US9p complex has been proposed to recruit KIF1A to PRV for microtubule-mediated anterograde trafficking into or along the axon. However, as loss of gE/gI-US9p essentially abolishes delivery of alphaherpesviruses to the axon it is difficult to determine the microtubule-dependent trafficking properties and motor-composition of Δ(gE/gI-US9p) particles. Alternatively, studies in HSV-1 have suggested that gE/gI and US9p are required for the appearance of virions in the axon because they act upstream, to help assemble enveloped virions in the cell body. We prepared Δ(gE/gI-US9p) mutant, and control parental PRV particles from differentiated cultured neuronal or porcine kidney epithelial cells and quantitated the efficiency of virion assembly, the properties of microtubule-dependent transport and the ability of viral particles to recruit kinesin motors. We find that loss of gE/gI-US9p has no significant effect upon PRV particle assembly but leads to greatly diminished plus end-directed traffic, and enhanced minus end-directed and bidirectional movement along microtubules. PRV particles prepared from infected differentiated mouse CAD neurons were found to be associated with either kinesin KIF1A or kinesin KIF5C, but not both. Loss of gE/gI-US9p resulted in failure to recruit KIF1A and KF5C, but did not affect dynein binding. Unexpectedly, while KIF5C was expressed in undifferentiated and differentiated CAD neurons it was only found associated with PRV particles prepared from differentiated cells.

Early versus late start of direct oral anticoagulants after acute ischaemic stroke linked to atrial fibrillation: an observational study and individual patient data pooled analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The optimal timing to start direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) after an acute ischaemic stroke (AIS) related to atrial fibrillation (AF) remains unclear. We aimed to compare early (≤5 days of AIS) versus late (>5 days of AIS) DOAC-start. METHODS: This is an individual patient data pooled analysis of eight prospective European and Japanese cohort studies. We included patients with AIS related to non-valvular AF where a DOAC was started within 30 days. Primary endpoints were 30-day rates of recurrent AIS and ICH. RESULTS: A total of 2550 patients were included. DOACs were started early in 1362 (53%) patients, late in 1188 (47%). During 212 patient-years, 37 patients had a recurrent AIS (1.5%), 16 (43%) before a DOAC was started; 6 patients (0.2%) had an ICH, all after DOAC-start. In the early DOAC-start group, 23 patients (1.7%) suffered from a recurrent AIS, while 2 patients (0.1%) had an ICH. In the late DOAC-start group, 14 patients (1.2%) suffered from a recurrent AIS; 4 patients (0.3%) suffered from ICH. In the propensity score-adjusted comparison of late versus early DOAC-start groups, there was no statistically significant difference in the hazard of recurrent AIS (aHR=1.2, 95% CI 0.5 to 2.9, p=0.69), ICH (aHR=6.0, 95% CI 0.6 to 56.3, p=0.12) or any stroke. CONCLUSIONS: Our results do not corroborate concerns that an early DOAC-start might excessively increase the risk of ICH. The sevenfold higher risk of recurrent AIS than ICH suggests that an early DOAC-start might be reasonable, supporting enrolment into randomised trials comparing an early versus late DOAC-start.

Candidalysin is a fungal peptide toxin critical for mucosal infection.

Cytolytic proteins and peptide toxins are classical virulence factors of several bacterial pathogens which disrupt epithelial barrier function, damage cells and activate or modulate host immune responses. Such toxins have not been identified previously in human pathogenic fungi. Here we identify the first, to our knowledge, fungal cytolytic peptide toxin in the opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans. This secreted toxin directly damages epithelial membranes, triggers a danger response signalling pathway and activates epithelial immunity. Membrane permeabilization is enhanced by a positive charge at the carboxy terminus of the peptide, which triggers an inward current concomitant with calcium influx. C. albicans strains lacking this toxin do not activate or damage epithelial cells and are avirulent in animal models of mucosal infection. We propose the name 'Candidalysin' for this cytolytic peptide toxin; a newly identified, critical molecular determinant of epithelial damage and host recognition of the clinically important fungus, C. albicans.

Routine Use of Tenecteplase for Thrombolysis in Acute Ischemic Stroke.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: In ischemic stroke, intravenous tenecteplase is noninferior to alteplase in selected patients and has some practical advantages. Several stroke centers in New Zealand changed to routine off-label intravenous tenecteplase due to improved early recanalization in large vessel occlusion, inconsistent access to thrombectomy within stroke networks, and for consistency in treatment protocols between patients with and without large vessel occlusion. We report the feasibility and safety outcomes in tenecteplase-treated patients. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of consecutive patients thrombolyzed with intravenous tenecteplase at 1 comprehensive and 2 regional stroke centers from July 14, 2018, to February 29, 2020. We report the baseline clinical characteristics, rates of symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage, and angioedema. These were then compared with patient outcomes with those treated with intravenous alteplase at 2 other comprehensive stroke centers. Multivariable mixed-effects logistic regression models were performed assessing the association of tenecteplase with symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage and independent outcome (modified Rankin Scale score, 0-2) at day 90. RESULTS: There were 165 patients treated with tenecteplase and 254 with alteplase. Age (75 versus 74 years), sex (56% versus 60% male), National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale scores (8 versus 10), median door-to-needle times (47 versus 48 minutes), or onset-to-needle time (129 versus 130 minutes) were similar between the groups. Symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage occurred in 3 (1.8% [95% CI, 0.4-5.3]) tenecteplase patients compared with 7 (2.7% [95% CI, 1.1-5.7]) alteplase patients (P=0.75). There were no differences between tenecteplase and alteplase in the rates of angioedema (4 [2.4%; 95% CI, 0.7-6.2] versus 1 [0.4%; 95% CI, 0.01-2.2], P=0.08) or 90-day functional independence (100 [61%] versus 140 [57%], P=0.47), respectively. In mixed-effects logistic regression models, there was no significant association between thrombolytic choice and symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage (odds ratio tenecteplase, 0.62 [95% CI, 0.14-2.80], P=0.53) or functional independence (odds ratio tenecteplase, 1.20 [95% CI, 0.74-1.95], P=0.46). CONCLUSIONS: Routine use of tenecteplase for stroke thrombolysis was feasible and had comparable safety profile and outcome to alteplase.

Small Vessel Disease and Ischemic Stroke Risk During Anticoagulation for Atrial Fibrillation After Cerebral Ischemia.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The causes of recurrent ischemic stroke despite anticoagulation for atrial fibrillation are uncertain but might include small vessel occlusion. We investigated whether magnetic resonance imaging markers of cerebral small vessel disease (SVD) are associated with ischemic stroke risk during follow-up in patients anticoagulated for atrial fibrillation after recent ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. METHODS: We analyzed data from a prospective multicenter inception cohort study of ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack anticoagulated for atrial fibrillation (CROMIS-2 [Clinical Relevance of Microbleeds in Stroke Study]). We rated markers of SVD on baseline brain magnetic resonance imaging: basal ganglia perivascular spaces (number ≥11); cerebral microbleeds (number ≥1); lacunes (number ≥1); and white matter hyperintensities (periventricular Fazekas grade 3 or deep white matter Fazekas grade ≥2). We investigated the associations of SVD presence (defined as presence of ≥1 SVD marker) and severity (composite SVD score) with the risk of ischemic stroke during follow-up using a Cox proportional hazards model adjusted for congestive heart failure, hypertension, age >75, diabetes, stroke, vascular disease, age 65-74, female score. RESULTS: We included 1419 patients (mean age: 75.8 years [SD, 10.4]; 42.1% female). The ischemic stroke rate during follow-up in patients with any SVD was 2.20 per 100-patient years (95% CI, 1.60-3.02), compared with 0.98 per 100 patient-years (95% CI, 0.59-1.62) in those without SVD (P=0.008). After adjusting for congestive heart failure, hypertension, age >75, diabetes, stroke, vascular disease, age 65-74, female score, SVD presence remained significantly associated with ischemic stroke during follow-up (hazard ratio, 1.89 [95% CI, 1.01-3.53]; P=0.046); the risk of recurrent ischemic stroke increased with SVD score (hazard ratio per point increase, 1.33 [95% CI, 1.04-1.70]; P=0.023). CONCLUSIONS: In patients anticoagulated for atrial fibrillation after ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack, magnetic resonance imaging markers of SVD are associated with an increased risk of ischemic stroke during follow-up; improved stroke prevention treatments are required in this population. Registration: URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT02513316.