Visual and social differences in dyslexia: deep phenotyping of four cases with spared phonology.

Diagnostic criteria for dyslexia describe specific reading difficulties, and single-deficit models, including the phonological deficit theory, have prevailed. Children seeking diagnosis, however, do not always show phonological deficits, and may present with strengths and challenges beyond reading. Through extensive neurological, neuropsychological, and academic evaluation, we describe four children with visuospatial, socio-emotional, and attention impairments and spared phonology, alongside long-standing reading difficulties. Diffusion tensor imaging revealed white matter alterations in inferior longitudinal, uncinate, and superior longitudinal fasciculi versus neurotypical children. Findings emphasize that difficulties may extend beyond reading in dyslexia and underscore the value of deep phenotyping in learning disabilities.

Androgenic Modulation of the Chloride Transporter NKCC1 Contributes to Age-dependent Isoflurane Neurotoxicity in Male Rats.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive deficits after perinatal anesthetic exposure are well established outcomes in animal models. This vulnerability is sex-dependent and associated with expression levels of the chloride transporters NKCC1 and KCC2. The hypothesis was that androgen signaling, NKCC1 function, and the age of isoflurane exposure are critical for the manifestation of anesthetic neurotoxicity in male rats. METHODS: Flutamide, an androgen receptor antagonist, was administered to male rats on postnatal days 2, 4, and 6 before 6 h of isoflurane on postnatal day 7 (ntotal = 26). Spatial and recognition memory were subsequently tested in adulthood. NKCC1 and KCC2 protein levels were measured from cortical lysates by Western blot on postnatal day 7 (ntotal = 20). Bumetanide, an NKCC1 antagonist, was injected immediately before isoflurane exposure (postnatal day 7) to study the effect of NKCC1 inhibition (ntotal = 48). To determine whether male rats remain vulnerable to anesthetic neurotoxicity as juveniles, postnatal day 14 animals were exposed to isoflurane and assessed as adults (ntotal = 30). RESULTS: Flutamide-treated male rats exposed to isoflurane successfully navigated the spatial (Barnes maze probe trial F[1, 151] = 78; P < 0.001; mean goal exploration ± SD, 6.4 ± 3.9 s) and recognition memory tasks (mean discrimination index ± SD, 0.09 ± 0.14; P = 0.003), unlike isoflurane-exposed controls. Flutamide changed expression patterns of NKCC1 (mean density ± SD: control, 1.49 ± 0.69; flutamide, 0.47 ± 0.11; P < 0.001) and KCC2 (median density [25th percentile, 75th percentile]: control, 0.23 [0.13, 0.49]; flutamide, 1.47 [1.18,1.62]; P < 0.001). Inhibiting NKCC1 with bumetanide was protective for spatial memory (probe trial F[1, 162] = 6.6; P = 0.011; mean goal time, 4.6 [7.4] s). Delaying isoflurane exposure until postnatal day 14 in males preserved spatial memory (probe trial F[1, 140] = 28; P < 0.001; mean goal time, 6.1 [7.0] s). CONCLUSIONS: Vulnerability to isoflurane neurotoxicity is abolished by blocking the androgen receptor, disrupting the function of NKCC1, or delaying the time of exposure to at least 2 weeks of age in male rats. These results support a dynamic role for androgens and chloride transporter proteins in perinatal anesthetic neurotoxicity.

Functional and morphological correlates of developmental dyslexia: A multimodal investigation of the ventral occipitotemporal cortex.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The ventral occipitotemporal cortex (vOT) is a region crucial for reading acquisition through selective tuning to printed words. Developmental dyslexia is a disorder of reading with underlying neurobiological bases often associated with atypical neural responses to printed words. Previous studies have discovered anomalous structural development and function of the vOT in individuals with dyslexia. However, it remains unclear if or how structural abnormalities relate to functional alterations. METHODS: In this study, we acquired structural, functional (words and faces processing), and diffusion MRI data from 26 children with dyslexia (average age = 10.4 ± 2.0 years) and 14 age-matched typically developing readers (average age = 10.4 ± 1.6 years). Morphological indices of local gyrification, neurite density (i.e., dendritic arborization structure), and orientation dispersion (i.e., dendritic arborization orientation) were analyzed within the vOT region that showed preferential activation in typically developing readers for words (as compared to face stimuli). RESULTS: The two cohorts diverged significantly in both functional and structural measures. Compared to typically developing controls, children with dyslexia did not show selectivity for words in the left vOT (contrast: words > false fonts). This lack of tuning to printed words was associated with greater neurite dispersion heterogeneity in the dyslexia cohort, but similar neurite density. These group differences were not present in the homologous contralateral area, the right vOT. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide new insight into the neurobiology of the lack of vOT word tuning in dyslexia by linking behavior, alterations in functional activation, and neurite organization.

MRI Measurement of Upper Cervical Spinal Cord Cross-Sectional Area in Children.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Neurological and neurodegenerative diseases can affect the spinal cord (SC) of pediatric patients. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows for in vivo quantification of SC atrophy via cross-sectional area (CSA). The study of CSA values in the general population is important to disentangle disease-related changes from intersubject variability. This study aimed at providing normative values for cervical CSA in children, extending our previous work performed with adults. METHODS: Seventy-eight children (age 7-17 years) were selected from a Developmental Dyslexia study. All subjects underwent a 3T brain MRI session and any incidental findings were reported on the scans. A sagittal 1 mm3 3-dimensional T1 -weighted brain acquisition extended to the upper cervical cord was used to measure CSA at C2-C3, as well as spinal canal area and skull volume (V-scale). These three metrics were linearly fitted as a function of age to extract trends and percentage annual changes. Sex differences of CSA were assessed using least squares regression analyses, adjusting for age. We tested normalization strategies proven to be effective in reducing the intersubject variability of adults' CSA. RESULTS: CSA changed as a function of age at a faster rate when compared with skull volume (CSA: 1.82% increase, V-scale: .60% reduction). Sex had a statistically significant effect on CSA. Normalization methods based on canal area and skull volume reduced the CSA intersubject variability up to 16.84%. CONCLUSIONS: We present CSA normative values in a large cohort of children, reporting on sources of intersubject variability and how to reduce them applying normalization methods previously developed.