Defining the Intravital Renal Disposition of Fluorescence-Quenched Exenatide.

Despite the understanding that renal clearance is pivotal for driving the pharmacokinetics of numerous therapeutic proteins and peptides, the specific processes that occur following glomerular filtration remain poorly defined. For instance, sites of catabolism within the proximal tubule can occur at the brush border, within lysosomes following endocytosis, or even within the tubule lumen itself. The objective of the current study was to address these limitations and develop methodology to study the kidney disposition of a model therapeutic protein. Exenatide is a peptide used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus. Glomerular filtration and ensuing renal catabolism have been shown to be its principal clearance pathway. Here, we designed and validated a Förster resonance energy transfer-quenched exenatide derivative to provide critical information on the renal handling of exenatide. A combination of in vitro techniques was used to confirm substantial fluorescence quenching of intact peptide that was released upon proteolytic cleavage. This evaluation was then followed by an assessment of the in vivo disposition of quenched exenatide directly within kidneys of living rats via intravital two-photon microscopy. Live imaging demonstrated rapid glomerular filtration and identified exenatide metabolism occurred within the subapical regions of the proximal tubule epithelia, with subsequent intracellular trafficking of cleaved fragments. These results provide a novel examination into the real-time, intravital disposition of a protein therapeutic within the kidney and offer a platform to build upon for future work.

Megalin-mediated albumin endocytosis in cultured murine mesangial cells.

Endocytosis by podocytes is gaining increased attention as a biologic means of removing large proteins such as serum albumin from the glomerular barrier. Some of this function has been attributed to the megalin/cubilin (Lrp2/Cubn) receptor complex and the albumin recycling protein FcRn (Fcgrt). However, whether other glomerular cells possess the potential to perform this same phenomenon or express these proteins remains uncharacterized. Mesangial cells are uniquely positioned in glomeruli and represent a cell type capable of performing several diverse functions. Here, the expression of megalin and FcRn in murine mesangial cells along with the megalin adaptor protein Dab-2 (Dab2) was shown for the first time. Cubilin mRNA expression was detected, but the absence of the cubilin partner amnionless (Amn) suggested that cubilin is minimally functional, if at all, in these cells. Mesangial cell endocytosis of albumin was characterized and shown to involve a receptor-mediated process. Albumin endocytosis was significantly impaired (p < 0.01) under inducible megalin knockdown conditions in stably transduced mesangial cells. The current work provides both the novel identification of megalin and FcRn in mesangial cells and the functional demonstration of megalin-mediated albumin endocytosis.

Increased megalin expression in early type 2 diabetes: role of insulin-signaling pathways.

The megalin/cubilin complex is responsible for the majority of serum protein reclamation in the proximal tubules. The current study examined if decreases in their renal expression, along with the albumin recycling protein neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) could account for proteinuria/albuminuria in the Zucker diabetic fatty rat model of type 2 diabetes. Immunoblots of renal cortex samples obtained at worsening disease stages demonstrated no loss in megalin, cubilin, or FcRn, even when proteinuria was measured. Additionally, early diabetic rats exhibited significantly increased renal megalin expression when compared with controls (adjusted P < 0.01). Based on these results, the ability of insulin to increase megalin was examined in a clonal subpopulation of the opossum kidney proximal tubule cell line. Insulin treatments (24 h, 100 nM) under high glucose conditions significantly increased megalin protein ( P < 0.0001), mRNA ( P < 0.0001), and albumin endocytosis. The effect on megalin expression was prevented with inhibitors against key effectors of insulin intracellular signaling, phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase and Akt. Studies using rapamycin to inhibit the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) resulted in a loss of insulin-induced megalin expression. However, subsequent evaluation demonstrated these effects were independent of initial mTORC1 suppression. The presented results provide insight into the expression of megalin, cubilin, and FcRn in type 2 diabetes, which may be impacted by elevated insulin and glucose. Furthermore, proximal tubule endocytic activity in early diabetics may be enhanced, a process that could have a significant role in proteinuria-induced renal damage.

Immunoglobulin G Is a Novel Substrate for the Endocytic Protein Megalin.

Therapeutic immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies comprise the largest class of protein therapeutics. Several factors that influence their overall disposition have been well-characterized, including target-mediated mechanics and convective flow. What remains poorly defined is the potential for non-targeted entry into various tissues or cell types by means of uptake via cell surface receptors at those sites. Megalin and cubilin are large endocytic receptors whose cooperative function plays important physiological roles at the tissues in which they are expressed. One such example is the kidney, where loss of either results in significant declines in proximal tubule protein reabsorption. Due to their diverse ligand profile and broad tissue expression, megalin and cubilin represent potential candidates for receptor-mediated uptake of IgG into various epithelia. Therefore, the objective of the current work was to determine if IgG was a novel ligand of megalin and/or cubilin. Direct binding was measured for human IgG with both megalin and the cubilin/amnionless complex. Additional work focusing on the megalin-IgG interaction was then conducted to build upon these findings. Cell uptake studies using megalin ligands for competitive inhibition or proximal tubule cells stably transduced with megalin-targeted shRNA constructs supported a role for megalin in the endocytosis of human IgG. Furthermore, a pharmacokinetic study using transgenic mice with a kidney-specific mosaic knockout of megalin demonstrated increased urinary excretion of human IgG in megalin knockout mice when compared to wild-type controls. These findings indicate that megalin is capable of binding and internalizing IgG via a high affinity interaction.