Curvature-mediated rapid extravasation and penetration of nanoparticles against interstitial fluid pressure for improved drug delivery.

Elevated interstitial fluid pressure (IFP) within pathological tissues (e.g., tumors, obstructed kidneys, and cirrhotic livers) creates a significant hindrance to the transport of nanomedicine, ultimately impairing the therapeutic efficiency. Among these tissues, solid tumors present the most challenging scenario. While several strategies through reducing tumor IFP have been devised to enhance nanoparticle delivery, few approaches focus on modulating the intrinsic properties of nanoparticles to effectively counteract IFP during extravasation and penetration, which are precisely the stages obstructed by elevated IFP. Herein, we propose an innovative solution by engineering nanoparticles with a fusiform shape of high curvature, enabling efficient surmounting of IFP barriers during extravasation and penetration within tumor tissues. Through experimental and theoretical analyses, we demonstrate that the elongated nanoparticles with the highest mean curvature outperform spherical and rod-shaped counterparts against elevated IFP, leading to superior intratumoral accumulation and antitumor efficacy. Super-resolution microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations uncover the underlying mechanisms in which the high curvature contributes to diminished drag force in surmounting high-pressure differentials during extravasation. Simultaneously, the facilitated rotational movement augments the hopping frequency during penetration. This study effectively addresses the limitations posed by high-pressure impediments, uncovers the mutual interactions between the physical properties of NPs and their environment, and presents a promising avenue for advancing cancer treatment through nanomedicine.

Disturbed Flow-Facilitated Margination and Targeting of Nanodisks Protect against Atherosclerosis.

Disturbed blood flow induces endothelial pro-inflammatory responses that promote atherogenesis. Nanoparticle-based therapeutics aimed at treating endothelial inflammation in vasculature where disturbed flow occurs may provide a promising avenue to prevent atherosclerosis. By using a vertical-step flow apparatus and a microfluidic chip of vascular stenosis, herein, it is found that the disk-shaped versus the spherical nanoparticles exhibit preferential margination (localization and adhesion) to the regions with the pro-atherogenic disturbed flow. By employing a mouse model of carotid partial ligation, superior targeting and higher accumulation of the disk-shaped particles are also demonstrated within disturbed flow areas than that of the spherical particles. In hyperlipidemia mice, administration of disk-shaped particles loaded with hypomethylating agent decitabine (DAC) displays greater anti-inflammatory and anti-atherosclerotic effects compared with that of the spherical counterparts and exhibits reduced toxicity than "naked" DAC. The findings suggest that shaping nanoparticles to disk is an effective strategy for promoting their delivery to atheroprone endothelia.

Temperature- and rigidity-mediated rapid transport of lipid nanovesicles in hydrogels.

Lipid nanovesicles are widely present as transport vehicles in living organisms and can serve as efficient drug delivery vectors. It is known that the size and surface charge of nanovesicles can affect their diffusion behaviors in biological hydrogels such as mucus. However, how temperature effects, including those of both ambient temperature and phase transition temperature (Tm), influence vehicle transport across various biological barriers outside and inside the cell remains unclear. Here, we utilize a series of liposomes with different Tm as typical models of nanovesicles to examine their diffusion behavior in vitro in biological hydrogels. We observe that the liposomes gain optimal diffusivity when their Tm is around the ambient temperature, which signals a drastic change in the nanovesicle rigidity, and that liposomes with Tm around body temperature (i.e., ∼37 °C) exhibit enhanced cellular uptake in mucus-secreting epithelium and show significant improvement in oral insulin delivery efficacy in diabetic rats compared with those with higher or lower Tm Molecular-dynamics (MD) simulations and superresolution microscopy reveal a temperature- and rigidity-mediated rapid transport mechanism in which the liposomes frequently deform into an ellipsoidal shape near the phase transition temperature during diffusion in biological hydrogels. These findings enhance our understanding of the effect of temperature and rigidity on extracellular and intracellular functions of nanovesicles such as endosomes, exosomes, and argosomes, and suggest that matching Tm to ambient temperature could be a feasible way to design highly efficient nanovesicle-based drug delivery vectors.

Cancer-Cell-Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles with a Yolk-Shell Structure Augment Cancer Chemotherapy.

Despite rapid advancements in antitumor drug delivery, insufficient intracellular transport and subcellular drug accumulation are still issues to be addressed. Cancer cell membrane (CCM)-camouflaged nanoparticles (NPs) have shown promising potential in tumor therapy due to their immune escape and homotypic binding capacities. However, their efficacy is still limited due to inefficient tumor penetration and compromised intracellular transportation. Herein, a yolk-shell NP with a mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN)-supported PEGylated liposome yolk and CCM coating, CCM@LM, was developed for chemotherapy and exhibited a homologous tumor-targeting effect. The yolk-shell structure endowed CCM@LM with moderate rigidity, which might contribute to the frequent transformation into an ellipsoidal shape during infiltration, leading to facilitated penetration throughout multicellular spheroids in vitro (up to a 23.3-fold increase compared to the penetration of membrane vesicles). CCM@LM also exhibited a cellular invasion profile mimicking an enveloped virus invasion profile. CCM@LM was directly internalized by membrane fusion, and the PEGylated yolk (LM) was subsequently released into the cytosol, indicating the execution of an internalization pathway similar to that of an enveloped virus. The incoming PEGylated LM further underwent efficient trafficking throughout the cytoskeletal filament network, leading to enhanced perinuclear aggregation. Ultimately, CCM@LM, which co-encapsulated low-dose doxorubicin and the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitor, mefuparib hydrochloride, exhibited a significantly stronger antitumor effect than the first-line chemotherapeutic drug Doxil. Our findings highlight that NPs that can undergo facilitated tumor penetration and robust intracellular trafficking have a promising future in cancer chemotherapy.

Rotation-Facilitated Rapid Transport of Nanorods in Mucosal Tissues.

Mucus is a viscoelastic gel layer that typically protects exposed surfaces of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, lung airways, and other mucosal tissues. Particles targeted to these tissues can be efficiently trapped and removed by mucus, thereby limiting the effectiveness of such drug delivery systems. In this study, we experimentally and theoretically demonstrated that cylindrical nanoparticles (NPs), such as mesoporous silica nanorods and calcium phosphate nanorods, have superior transport and trafficking capability in mucus compared with spheres of the same chemistry. The higher diffusivity of nanorods leads to deeper mucus penetration and a longer retention time in the GI tract than that of their spherical counterparts. Molecular simulations and stimulated emission of depletion (STED) microscopy revealed that this anomalous phenomenon can be attributed to the rotational dynamics of the NPs facilitated by the mucin fibers and the shear flow. These findings shed new light on the shape design of NP-based drug delivery systems targeted to mucosal and tumor sites that possess a fibrous structure/porous medium.

Oral peptide therapeutics for diabetes treatment: State-of-the-art and future perspectives.

Diabetes, characterized by hyperglycemia, is a major cause of death and disability worldwide. Peptides, such as insulin and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogs, have shown promise as treatments for diabetes due to their ability to mimic or enhance insulin's actions in the body. Compared to subcutaneous injection, oral administration of anti-diabetic peptides is a preferred approach. However, biological barriers significantly reduce the efficacy of oral peptide therapeutics. Recent advancements in drug delivery systems and formulation techniques have greatly improved the oral delivery of peptide therapeutics and their efficacy in treating diabetes. This review will highlight (1) the benefits of oral anti-diabetic peptide therapeutics; (2) the biological barriers for oral peptide delivery, including pH and enzyme degradation, intestinal mucosa barrier, and biodistribution barrier; (3) the delivery platforms to overcome these biological barriers. Additionally, the review will discuss the prospects in this field. The information provided in this review will serve as a valuable guide for future developments in oral anti-diabetic peptide therapeutics.

Oral Delivery of Gemcitabine-Loaded Glycocholic Acid-Modified Micelles for Cancer Therapy.

The clinical utility of gemcitabine, an antimetabolite antineoplastic agent applied in various chemotherapy treatments, is limited due to the required intravenous injection. Although chemical structure modifications of gemcitabine result in enhanced oral bioavailability, these modifications compromise complex synthetic routes and cause unexpected side effects. In this study, gemcitabine-loaded glycocholic acid-modified micelles (Gem-PPG) were prepared for enhanced oral chemotherapy. The in vitro transport pathway experiments revealed that intact Gem-PPG were transported across the intestinal epithelial monolayer via an apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT)-mediated pathway. In mice, the pharmacokinetic analyses demonstrated that the oral bioavailability of Gem-PPG approached 81%, compared to less than 20% for unmodified micelles. In addition, the antitumor activity of oral Gem-PPG (30 mg/kg, BIW) was superior to that of free drug injection (60 mg/kg, BIW) in the xenograft model. Moreover, the assessments of hematology, blood chemistry, and histology all indicated the hypotoxicity profile of the drug-loaded micelles.

Oral delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics: Challenges, strategies, and opportunities.

In recent decades, advances in chemical synthesis and delivery systems have accelerated the development of therapeutic nucleic acids, several of which have been approved by the Us Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Oral nucleic acid delivery is preferred because of its simplicity and patient compliance, but it still presents distinct challenges. The negative charge, hydrophilicity, and large molecular weight of nucleic acids combined with in vivo gastrointestinal (GI) barriers (e.g., acidic pH, enzymes, mucus, and intestinal epithelial cells) severely hinder their delivery efficacy. Recently, various nanoparticles (NPs), ranging from polymeric to lipid-based (L)NPs and extracellular vesicles (EVs), have been extensively explored to address these obstacles. In this review, we describe the physiological barriers in the GI tract and summarize recent advances in NP-based oral nucleic acid therapeutics.

Elasticity regulates nanomaterial transport as delivery vehicles: Design, characterization, mechanisms and state of the art.

Nanobiotechnology and nanomedicine are rapidly growing fields, in which nanomaterials (NMs) can lead to enhanced therapeutic efficacy by achieving efficient transport and drug delivery in vivo. The physicochemical properties of NMs have a great impact on their interactions with biological environments and hence determine their biological fates and drug delivery efficiency. Despite rapid advances in understanding the significance of NM properties, such as shape, size, and surface charge, there is a pressing need to engineer and discover how elasticity shapes NM transport. Recently, advances in material synthesis and characterization have promoted investigations into the macroscopic roles and microscopic mechanisms of elasticity to modulate nano-bio interactions. This review will highlight (1) the basic definitions of elasticity and strategies for modulating NM elasticity; (2) advanced techniques for evaluating the effects of elasticity on nano-bio interactions; (3) the macroscopic role of elasticity in the biological fates of NMs, including blood circulation, biodistribution, biological hydrogel penetration, cellular uptake, and intracellular trafficking; and (4) the potential microscopic mechanisms probed by these advanced characterization techniques. Additionally, challenges and future prospects are included. The advanced research discussed in this review will provide guidance to extensively explore the effects and detailed mechanism of elasticity in nano-bio interactions for enhanced drug delivery and developed nanomedicines.

Shape-directed drug release and transport of erythrocyte-like nanodisks augment chemotherapy.

Nanoparticle shape has been recognized as a crucial parameter to affect the transport across various biological barriers, but its impact on drug release and the resulting therapeutic efficacy is less understood. Inspired by erythrocytes with shape-facilitated oxygen-carrying and penetrating abilities, we constructed artificial erythrocyte-like nanoparticles (RNDs) by wrapping discoidal mesoporous silica nanoparticles with red blood cell membrane. We observed that, compared with their spherical and rod-shaped counterparts with monotonic drug release profiles, RNDs displayed an on-demand drug release pattern mimicking natural erythrocytes, that is, they could rapidly release loaded oxygen and doxorubicin (DOX) in hypoxic condition but were relatively stable in high oxygen areas. Besides, the discoidal shape also endowed RNDs with facilitated transport capability in tumor extracellular matrix, contributing to increased tumor permeability. In tumor models, systemically administrated RNDs efficiently infiltrate throughout tumor tissue, successfully relieve tumor hypoxia, and further altered the cancer cell cycle status from G1 to G2 phase, enhancing cancer cell sensitivity to DOX correlated with improved chemotherapy efficacy. In contrast, nanospheres show hampered permeability, and nanorods suffer from insufficient intratumoral drug accumulation. These findings can offer guidelines for the use of particle shape as a design criterion to control drug release, transportation, and therapeutics delivery.

Dual-modified nanoparticles overcome sequential absorption barriers for oral insulin delivery.

The efficacy of oral insulin drug delivery is seriously hampered by multiple gastrointestinal barriers, especially transepithelial barriers, including apical endocytosis, lysosomal degradation, cytosolic diffusion and basolateral exocytosis. In this study, a functional nanoparticle (PG-FAPEP) with dual-modification was constructed to sequentially address these important absorption obstacles for improved oral insulin delivery. The dual surface decorations folate and charge-convertible tripeptide endowed PG-FAPEP with the ability to target the apical and basolateral sides of enterocytes, respectively. After fast diffusion across the mucus layer, PG-FAPEP could be efficiently internalized into epithelial cells via a folate receptor-mediated pathway and subsequently became positively charged in acidic lysosomes due to the surface tripeptide, triggering the proton sponge effect to escape lysosomes. When entering the cytosolic medium, PG-FAPEP was converted to neutral charge again, attenuating intracellular adhesion, and gained improved motility toward the basolateral side. Finally, the tripeptide helped PG-FAPEP recognize the proton-coupled oligopeptide transporter (PHT1) in the basolateral membrane, boosting intact exocytosis across intestinal epithelial cells. The in vivo studies further verified that PG-FAPEP could traverse the intestinal epithelium by folate receptor-mediated endocytosis, lysosomal escape, and PHT1-mediated exocytosis, exhibiting a high oral insulin bioavailability of 14.3% and a prolonged hypoglycemic effect. This formulation addresses multiple absorption barriers on demand with a simple dual-modification strategy. Therefore, these features allow PG-FAPEP to unleash the potential of oral macromolecule delivery.

Ligand-switchable nanoparticles resembling viral surface for sequential drug delivery and improved oral insulin therapy.

Mutual interference between surface ligands on multifunctional nanoparticles remains a significant obstacle to achieving optimal drug-delivery efficacy. Here, we develop ligand-switchable nanoparticles which resemble viral unique surfaces, enabling them to fully display diverse functions. The nanoparticles are modified with a pH-responsive stretchable cell-penetrating peptide (Pep) and a liver-targeting moiety (Gal) (Pep/Gal-PNPs). Once orally administered, the acidic environments trigger the extension of Pep from surface in a virus-like manner, enabling Pep/Gal-PNPs to traverse intestinal barriers efficiently. Subsequently, Gal is exposed by Pep folding at physiological pH, thereby allowing the specific targeting of Pep/Gal-PNPs to the liver. As a proof-of-concept, insulin-loaded Pep/Gal-PNPs are fabricated which exhibit effective intestinal absorption and excellent hepatic deposition of insulin. Crucially, Pep/Gal-PNPs increase hepatic glycogen production by 7.2-fold, contributing to the maintenance of glucose homeostasis for effective diabetes management. Overall, this study provides a promising approach to achieving full potential of diverse ligands on multifunctional nanoparticles.

The upregulated intestinal folate transporters direct the uptake of ligand-modified nanoparticles for enhanced oral insulin delivery.

Transporters are traditionally considered to transport small molecules rather than large-sized nanoparticles due to their small pores. In this study, we demonstrate that the upregulated intestinal transporter (PCFT), which reaches a maximum of 12.3-fold expression in the intestinal epithelial cells of diabetic rats, mediates the uptake of the folic acid-grafted nanoparticles (FNP). Specifically, the upregulated PCFT could exert its function to mediate the endocytosis of FNP and efficiently stimulate the traverse of FNP across enterocytes by the lysosome-evading pathway, Golgi-targeting pathway and basolateral exocytosis, featuring a high oral insulin bioavailability of 14.4% in the diabetic rats. Conversely, in cells with relatively low PCFT expression, the positive surface charge contributes to the cellular uptake of FNP, and FNP are mainly degraded in the lysosomes. Overall, we emphasize that the upregulated intestinal transporters could direct the uptake of ligand-modified nanoparticles by mediating the endocytosis and intracellular trafficking of ligand-modified nanoparticles via the transporter-mediated pathway. This study may also theoretically provide insightful guidelines for the rational design of transporter-targeted nanoparticles to achieve efficient drug delivery in diverse diseases.

Transfersomes improved delivery of ascorbic palmitate into the viable epidermis for enhanced treatment of melasma.

Ascorbic palmitate (AP) is widely used in the topical pharmaceutical or cosmetic formulations for melasma treatment. However, the presence of the skin barriers makes it difficult for the highly lipophilic drug molecules to traverse the stratum corneum (SC) and diffuse into the viable epidermis (EP) to reach the melanocytes, thereby exerting suboptimal antimelasma effects. Herein, AP was encapsulated into the transfersomes (TFs), yielding AP-TFs. AP-TFs utilized the deformability of TFs to squeeze through the skin pores in the SC under the transepidermal hydration gradient forces, leading to 14.1-fold increase in AP accumulation to the EP. AP-TFs could slowly release the encapsulated AP, while whether the released AP or transfersomal AP showed comparable uptake into the melanocytes, thereby exerting similar inhibitory effects on tyrosinase activity and melanogenesis. Ultimately, in the rat melasma model, AP-TFs showed superior antimelasma efficacy to free AP, with effective relief of oxidative stress and inflammation in the skin. Moreover, AP-TFs did not induce skin irritation. Therefore, the study provides a safe and effective approach to elevating the delivery of highly lipophilic drugs to the EP for enhanced treatment of melasma.

Rapid transport of germ-mimetic nanoparticles with dual conformational polyethylene glycol chains in biological tissues.

Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) can improve the diffusivity of nanoparticles (NPs) in biological hydrogels, while extended PEG chains severely impede cellular uptake of NPs. Inspired by invasive germs with flagellum-driven mucus-penetrating and fimbriae-mediated epithelium-adhering abilities, we developed germ-mimetic NPs (GMNPs) to overcome multiple barriers in mucosal and tumor tissues. In vitro studies and computational simulations revealed that the tip-specific extended PEG chains on GMNP functioned similarly to flagella, facilitating GMNP diffusion (up to 83.0-fold faster than their counterparts). Meanwhile, the packed PEG chains on the bodies of GMNP mediated strong adhesive interactions with cells similarly to the fimbriae, preserving cellular uptake efficiency. The in vivo results proved the superior tumor permeability and improved oral bioavailability provided by the GMNP (21.9-fold over administration of crystalline drugs). These findings offer useful guidelines for the rational design of NPs by manipulating surface polymer conformation to realize multiple functions and to enhance delivery efficacy.

MT1-MMP-Activated Liposomes to Improve Tumor Blood Perfusion and Drug Delivery for Enhanced Pancreatic Cancer Therapy.

Promoting tumor angiogenesis effectively and specifically to resolve tumor-associated hypoperfusion holds promise for improving pancreatic cancer therapy. Herein, a doxorubicin (DOX) loaded smart liposome, MC-T-DOX, is constructed, that carries appropriately low-density cilengitide, an αvß3 integrin-specific Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD)-mimetic cyclic peptide, via a membrane type 1-matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) cleavable peptide. After being administered systemically in a hypoperfused pancreatic cancer mouse model at a low dose of cilengitide, the proangiogenic activity of MC-T-DOX is specifically "turned on" in tumor vessels through cleavage by MT1-MMP on tumor endothelial cells to release cilengitide. This locally released cilengitide increases tumor blood perfusion, thereby improving the accumulation and distribution of MC-T-DOX in the tumor site. The loaded-DOX then displays enhanced penetration and increased cellular uptake upon heat-triggered release from MC-T-DOX in the tumor interstitium, contributing to the improved tumor therapy efficacy. Therefore, the strategy of combining the modulation of tumor vascular promotion with smart nanodrug delivery represents a promising approach to improving drug delivery and therapeutic efficacy in a wide range of hypoperfused tumors.

Advances in particle shape engineering for improved drug delivery.

Spherical particles such as liposomes and microspheres are the most common and extensively applied drug vehicles. However, researchers have come to realize the superiority of nonspherical nanoparticles. Actually, in human bodies red blood cells, gut biotics and many well-known pathogens have distinct shapes. It can be reasonably inferred that particle shape plays a pivotal part in human bodies. In this review, we summarize the recent studies about the effect of shape on delivery processes such as cellular uptake, tissue penetration and biodistribution. The underlying mechanisms that are relevant to the phenomena revealed, owing to experimental and computational modern techniques, will be addressed, and we shall provide future perspectives on particle design to improve the efficacy of drug delivery.

Supersaturated polymeric micelles for oral silybin delivery: the role of the Soluplus-PVPVA complex.

Increasing the degree of supersaturation of drugs and maintaining their proper stability are very important in improving the oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs by a supersaturated drug delivery system (SDDS). In this study, we reported a complex system of Soluplus-Copovidone (Soluplus-PVPVA) loaded with the model drug silybin (SLB) that could not only maintain the stability of a supersaturated solution but also effectively promote oral absorption. The antiprecipitation effect of the polymers on SLB was observed using the solvent-shift method. In addition, the effects of the polymers on absorption were detected by cellular uptake and transport experiments. The mechanisms by which the Soluplus-PVPVA complex promotes oral absorption were explored by dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence spectra and isothermal titration calorimetry analyses. Furthermore, a pharmacokinetic study in rats was used to demonstrate the advantages of the Soluplus-PVPVA complex. The results showed that Soluplus and PVPVA spontaneously formed complexes in aqueous solution via the adsorption of PVPVA on the hydrophilic-hydrophobic interface of the Soluplus micelle, and the Soluplus-PVPVA complex significantly increased the absorption of SLB. In conclusion, the Soluplus-PVPVA complex is a potential SDDS for improving the bioavailability of hydrophobic drugs.

Cancer Cell Membrane-Camouflaged Nanorods with Endoplasmic Reticulum Targeting for Improved Antitumor Therapy.

Cell membrane-coated nanocarriers have been developed for drug delivery due to their enhanced blood circulation and tissue targeting capacities; however, previous works have generally focused on spherical nanoparticles and extracellular barriers. Many living organisms with different shapes, such as rod-shaped bacilli and rhabdovirus, display different functionalities regarding tissue penetration, cellular uptake, and intracellular distribution. Herein, we developed cancer cell membrane (CCM)-coated nanoparticles with spherical and rod shapes. CCM-coated nanorods (CRs) showed superior endocytosis efficiency compared with their spherical counterparts (CCM-coated nanospheres, CSs) due to the caveolin-mediated pathway. Moreover, CRs can effectively accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) region and ship the loaded DOX to the nucleus at a considerable concentration, resulting in ER stress and subsequent apoptosis. After intravenous injection into human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell (BxPC-3) and pancreatic stellate cell (HPSC) hybrid tumor-bearing nude mice, CRs exhibited improved immune escape ability, rapid extracellular matrix (ECM) penetration (8.2-fold higher than CSs), and enhanced tumor accumulation, further contributing to the enhanced antitumor efficacy. These findings may actually suggest the significance of shape design in improving current cell membrane-based drug delivery systems for effective subcellular targets and tumor therapy.

NPC1L1-Targeted Cholesterol-Grafted Poly(ß-Amino Ester)/pDNA Complexes for Oral Gene Delivery.

Gene vectors for oral delivery encounter harsh conditions throughout the gastrointestinal tract, and the continuous peristaltic activity can quickly remove the vectors, leading to inefficient intestinal permeation. Therefore, vectors have demanding property requirements, such as stability under various pH and, more importantly, efficient uptake in different intestinal segments. In this study, a functional polymer, cholesterol-grafted poly(ß-amino ester) (poly[hexamethylene diacrylate-ß-(5-amino-1-pentanol)] (CH-PHP)), is synthesized and electrostatically interacted with plasmid DNA to form a CH-PHP/DNA complex (CPNC). This complex is designed to target the Niemann-Pick C1-like receptor, a cholesterol receptor, to improve oral gene delivery efficacy. With the presence of cholesterol, CH-PHP shows mitigated cytotoxicity, enhanced enzyme resistance, and improved gene condensing ability. CPNC further contributes to ≈43.1- and 2.3-fold increases in luciferase expression in Caco-2 cells compared with PNC and Lipo 2000/DNA complexes, respectively. In addition, the in vivo transfection efficacy of CPNC is ≈4.1-, 2.1-, and 1.6-fold higher than that of Lipo 2000/DNA complexes in rat duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, respectively. Therefore, CPNC may be a promising delivery vector for gene delivery, and using a cholesterol-specific endocytic pathway can be a novel approach to achieve efficient oral gene transfection.