Bilayer Interphase for Air-Stable and Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anode Cycling in Carbonate Electrolytes.

The intrinsic reactivity of lithium (Li) toward ambient air, combined with insufficient cycling stability in conventional electrolytes, hinders the practical adoption of Li metal anodes in rechargeable batteries. Here, a bilayer interphase for Li metal is introduced to address both its susceptibility to corrosion in ambient air and its deterioration during cycling in carbonate electrolytes. Initially, the Li metal anode is coated with a conformal bottom layer of polysiloxane bearing methacrylate, followed by further grafting with poly(vinyl ethylene carbonate) (PVEC) to enhance anti-corrosion capability and electrochemical stability. In contrast to single-layer applications of polysiloxane or PVEC, the bilayer design offers a highly uniform coating that effectively resists humid air and prevents dendritic Li growth. Consequently, it demonstrates stable plating/stripping behavior with only a marginal increase in overpotential over 200 cycles in carbonate electrolytes, even after exposure to ambient air with 46% relative humidity. The design concept paves the way for scalable production of high-voltage, long-cycling Li metal batteries.

Solution-Based Deep Prelithiation for Lithium-Ion Capacitors with High Energy Density.

Lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) exhibit superior power density and cyclability compared to lithium-ion batteries. However, the low initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) of amorphous carbon anodes (e.g., hard carbon (HC) and soft carbon (SC)) limits the energy density of LICs by underutilizing cathode capacity. Here, a solution-based deep prelithiation strategy for carbon anodes is applied using a contact-ion pair dominant solution, offering high energy density based on a systematic electrode balancing based on the cathode capacity increased beyond the original theoretical limit. Increasing the anode ICE to 150% over 100%, the activated carbon (AC) capacity is doubled by activating Li+ cation storage, which unleashes rocking-chair LIC operation alongside the dual-ion-storage mechanism. The increased AC capacity results in an energy density of 106.6 Wh kg-1 AC+SC , equivalent to 281% of that of LICs without prelithiation. Moreover, this process lowers the cathode-anode mass ratio, reducing the cell thickness by 67% without compromising the cell capacity. This solution-based deep chemical prelithiation promises high-energy LICs based on transition metal-free, earth-abundant active materials to meet the practical demands of power-intensive applications.

High-Power and Large-Area Anodes for Safe Lithium-Metal Batteries.

The lithium deposited via the complex electrochemical heterogeneous lithium deposition reaction (LDR) process on a lithium foil-based anode (LFA) forms a high-aspect-ratio shape whenever the reaction kinetics reach its limit, threatening battery safety. Thereby, a research strategy that boosts the LDR kinetics is needed to construct a high-power and safe lithium metal anode. In this study, the kinetic limitations of the LDR process on LFA are elucidated through operando and ex situ observations using in-depth electrochemical analyses. In addition, ultra-thin (≈0.5 µm) and high modulus (≥19 GPa) double-walled carbon nanotube (DWNT) membranes with different surface properties are designed to catalyze high-safety LDRs. The oxygen-functionalized DWNT membranes introduced on the LFA top surface simultaneously induce multitudinous lithium nuclei, leading to film-like lithium deposition even at a high current density of 20 mA cm-2. More importantly, the layer-by-layer assembly of the oxygen-functionalized and pristine DWNT membranes results in different surface energies between the top and bottom surfaces, enabling selective surface LDRs underneath the high-modulus bilayer membranes. The protective LDR on the bilayer-covered LFA guarantees an invulnerable cycling process in large-area pouch cells at high current densities for more than 1000 cycles, demonstrating the practicability of LFA in a conventional liquid electrolyte system.

Highly Permeable Mixed Matrix Membranes for Gas Separation via Dual Defect-Engineered Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-8.

Defect engineering of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) is a promising strategy for tailoring the interfacial characteristics between MOFs and polymers, aiming to create high-performance mixed matrix membranes (MMMs). This study introduces a new approach using dual defective alkylamine (AA)-modulated zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (DAZIF-8), to develop high-flux MMMs. Tributylamine (TBA) and triethylamine (TEA) monodentate ligands coordinate with zinc ions in varying compositions. A mixture of Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O:2-methylimidazole (Mim):AA in a 1:1.75:5 molar ratio facilitates high-yield coordination between Zn and multiple organic ligands, including Zn-Mim, Zn-TEA, and Zn-TBA (>80%). Remarkably, DAZIF-8 containing 3 mol% TBA and 2 mol% TEA exhibits exceptional characteristics, such as a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area of 1745 m2 g-1 and enhanced framework rigidity. Furthermore, dual Zn-AA coordination sites on the framework's outer surface enhance compatibility with the polyimide (PI) matrix through electron donor-acceptor interactions, enabling the fabrication of high-loading MMMs with excellent mechanical durability. Importantly, the PI/DAZIF-8 (60/40 w/w) MMM demonstrates an unprecedented 759% enhancement in ethylene (C2H4) permeability (281 Barrer) with a moderate ethylene/ethane (C2H4/C2H6) selectivity of 2.95 compared to the PI, surpassing the polymeric upper limit for C2H4/C2H6 separation.

Real-Time Visualizing Nucleation and Growth of Electrodes for Post-Lithium-Ion Batteries.

ConspectusUntil recently, most studies on nucleation and growth mechanisms have employed electrochemical transient measurements, and numerous models have been established on various metal electrode elements. Contrary to the conventional tip-induced nucleation and growth model, a base-induced nucleation and growth mode was discovered not so long ago, which highlighted the importance of direct real-time observations such as visualization. As analysis techniques developed, diverse in situ/operando imaging methods have spurred the fundamental understanding of complex and dynamic battery electrochemistry. Experimental observations of alkali Li and Na metals are limited and difficult because their high reactivity makes not only the fabrication but also the analysis itself challenging. Na metal has high reactivity to electrolytes. Accordingly, it is difficult to visualize the Na deposition in real-time due to gas evolution and resolution limitation. Only a few studies have examined the Na deposition and dissolution reactions in operando. It is generally believed that the Mg anode is free from the dendrite growth of Mg metal, and Mg deposition preferentially occurs along the surface direction. However, whether the Mg anode always follows the dendrite-free growth has currently become a controversial topic and is being discussed and redefined based on real-time imaging analyses. In addition, a variety of morphological evolutions in the metal anodes are required to be systematically distinguished by key parameters. Real-time imaging analysis can directly confirm the solid-liquid-solid multiphase conversion reactions of S and Se cathodes. S and Se elements belong to the same chalcogen group, but their crystal structures and morphological changes significantly differ in each electrode during deposition and dissolution reactions. Therefore, it is necessitated to discuss the nucleation and growth behaviors by examining intrinsic properties of each element in chalcogen cathodes. Considering that a mechanistic understanding of the Se cathode is in its infancy, its nucleation and growth behaviors must be further explored through fundamental studies. In this Account, we aim to discuss the nucleation and growth behaviors of metal (Li, Na, and Mg) anodes and chalcogen (S and Se) cathodes. To elucidate their nucleation and growth mechanisms, we overview the morphological evolutions on the electrode surface and interface by in situ/operando visualizations. Our recent studies covering Li, Na, Mg, S, and Se electrodes verified by operando X-ray imaging are used as critical resources in understanding their nucleation and growth behaviors. Overall, with validation of the complex and dynamic nucleation and growth behaviors of metal and chalcogen electrodes by in situ/operando visualization methods, we hope that this Account can contribute to supporting the fundamental knowledge for the development of high-energy-density metal and chalcogen electrodes.

Dopant-induced electronic design of redox-active elements in LiMn2O4 spinel structures.

Despite the importance of the electronic-level design of inorganic cathode materials for high-performance secondary batteries, studies attempting to clarify the correlation between the electronic structure and performance are relatively scarce compared to the broad range of inorganic cathode materials developed to date. This study highlights that the symmetricity/asymmetricity of eg/t2g orbitals in redox-active elements would be a core factor to determine the degree of the Jahn-Teller distortion of LiM0.125Mn1.875O4 (M = Mn, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, and Ni) spinel-type cathode materials during the discharging process. The presence of redox-active Mn3+ ions accompanied by a significant collapse in the symmetry of orbital eg during the discharging process is highlighted as the main reason for poor structural durability and electrochemical performance of the cathode material. This limitation can be most effectively overcome by removing Mn3+ ions by adding Ni2+ as a carefully selected dopant. Further investigation reveals that the electrochemical impact of the introduced dopants strongly relies on the change in the symmetricity/asymmetricity of their eg/t2g orbital configurations during the discharging process and the resultant energy benefit/penalty.

Understanding the Impacts of Li Stripping Overpotentials at the Counter Electrode by Three-Electrode Coin Cell Measurements.

The evaluation of new materials, interfaces, and architectures for battery applications are routinely conducted in two-electrode coin cell experiments, which although convenient, can lead to misrepresentations of the processes occurring in the cell. Few three-electrode coin cell designs have been reported, but those which have involve complex cell assembly, specialized equipment, and/or cell configurations which vary drastically from the standard coin cell environment. Herein, we present a novel, facile three-electrode coin cell design which can be easily assembled with existing coin cell parts and which accurately reproduces the environment of traditional coin cells. Using this design, we systematically investigated the inaccuracies incurred in two-electrode measurements in both symmetric/asymmetric cells and half-cell experiments by galvanostatic charge/discharge, galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and cyclic voltammetry. From our investigation, we reveal that lithium metal stripping contributes larger overpotentials than its nucleation/plating processes, a phenomenon which is often misinterpreted in two-electrode cell measurements.

Structural and Chemical Compatibilities of Li1- x Ni0.5 Co0.2 Mn0.3 O2 Cathode Material with Garnet-Type Solid Electrolyte for All-Solid-State Batteries.

All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) based on ceramic materials are considered a key technology for automobiles and energy storage systems owing to their high safety and stability. However, contact issues between the electrode and solid-electrolyte materials and undesired chemical reaction occurring at interfaces have hindered their development. Herein, the chemical compatibility and structural stability of composite mixtures of the layered cathode materials Li1- x Ni0.5 Co0.2 Mn0.3 O2 (NCM523) with the garnet-type solid electrolyte Li6.25 Ga0.25 La3 Zr2 O12 (LLZO-Ga) during high-temperature co-sintering under various gas flowing conditions are investigated. In situ high-temperature X-ray diffraction analysis of the composite materials reveals that Li diffusion from LLZO-Ga to NCM523 occurs at high temperature under synthetic air atmosphere, resulting in the decomposition of LLZO-Ga into La2 Zr2 O7 and the recovery of charged NCM523 to the as-prepared state. The structural stability of the composite mixture at high temperature is further investigated under N2 atmosphere, revealing that Li diffuses toward the opposite direction and involves the phase transition of LLZO-Ga from a cubic to tetragonal structure and the reduction of the NCM523 cathode to Ni metal. These findings provide insight into the structural stability of layered cathode and garnet-type solid-electrolyte composite materials and the design of stable interfaces between them via co-sintering for ASSBs.

Operando Identification of the Chemical and Structural Origin of Li-Ion Battery Aging at Near-Ambient Temperature.

Integrated with heat-generating devices, a Li-ion battery (LIB) often operates at 20-40 °C higher than the ordinary working temperature. Although macroscopic investigation of the thermal contribution has shown a significant reduction in the LIB performance, the molecular level structural and chemical origin of battery aging in a mild thermal environment has not been elucidated. On the basis of the combined experiments of the electrochemical measurements, Cs-corrected electron microscopy, and in situ analyses, we herein provide operando structural and chemical insights on how a mild thermal environment affects the overall battery performance using anatase TiO2 as a model intercalation compound. Interestingly, a mild thermal condition induces excess lithium intercalation even at near-ambient temperature (45 °C), which does not occur at the ordinary working temperature. The anomalous intercalation enables excess lithium storage in the first few cycles but exerts severe intracrystal stress, consequently cracking the crystal that leads to battery aging. Importantly, this mild thermal effect is accumulated upon cycling, resulting in irreversible capacity loss even after the thermal condition is removed. Battery aging at a high working temperature is universal in nearly all intercalation compounds, and therefore, it is significant to understand how the thermal condition contributes to battery aging for designing intercalation compounds for advanced battery electrode materials.

In Situ Conversion of Metal-Organic Frameworks into VO2 -V3 S4 Heterocatalyst Embedded Layered Porous Carbon as an "All-in-One" Host for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

Although lithium-sulfur batteries exhibit a fivefold higher energy density than commercial lithium-ion batteries, their volume expansion and insulating nature, and intrinsic polysulfide shuttle have hindered their practical application. An alternative sulfur host is necessary to realize porous, conductive, and polar functions; however, there is a tradeoff among these three critical factors in material design. Here, the authors report a layered porous carbon (LPC) with VO2 /V3 S4 heterostructures using one-step carbonization-sulfidation of metal-organic framework templates as a sulfur host that meets all the criteria. In situ conversion of V-O ions into V3 S4 nuclei in the confined 2D space generated by dynamic formation of the LPC matrix creates {200}-facet-exposed V3 S4 nanosheets decorated with tiny VO2 nanoparticles. The VO2 /V3 S4  @ LPC composite facilitates high sulfur loading (70 wt%), superior energy density (1022 mA h g-1 at 0.2 C, 100 cycles), and long-term cyclability (665 mA h g-1 at 1 C, 1000 cycles). The enhanced Li-S chemistry is attributed to the synergistic heterocatalytic behavior of polar VO2 and conductive V3 S4 in the soft porous LPC scaffold, which accelerates polysulfide adsorption, conversion, and charge-transfer ability simultaneously.

Regulating Key Variables and Visualizing Lithium Dendrite Growth: An Operando X-ray Study.

Although Li metal has long been considered to be the ideal anode material for Li rechargeable batteries, our limited understanding of the complex mechanism of Li plating has hindered the widespread deployment of Li metal anodes. Therefore, operando studies are required to unambiguously reveal the complex mechanistic steps involved. In this study, we employed synchrotron-based X-ray imaging methods to visualize the evolution of Li plating/stripping under operando and, more importantly, practical conditions for battery operation, providing detailed insights into morphology evolution during Li plating. The effects of critical battery operating parameters, including concentration of Li salts, current density, ionic strength, and various electrolytes and additives, on Li plating/stripping have been studied. The delicate interplay of these conditions on the resulting Li metal morphology has been characterized for the first time.

In Situ X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy of a Synergistic Co-Mn Oxide Catalyst for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction.

Identifying the catalytically active site(s) in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), under real-time electrochemical conditions, is critical to the development of fuel cells and other technologies. We have employed in situ synchrotron-based X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) to investigate the synergistic interaction of a Co-Mn oxide catalyst which exhibits impressive ORR activity in alkaline fuel cells. X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) was used to track the dynamic structural changes of Co and Mn under both steady state (constant applied potential) and nonsteady state (potentiodynamic cyclic voltammetry, CV). Under steady state conditions, both Mn and Co valences decreased at lower potentials, indicating the conversion from Mn(III,IV) and Co(III) to Mn(II,III) and Co(II), respectively. Rapid X-ray data acquisition, combined with a slow sweep rate in CV, enabled a 3 mV resolution in the applied potential, approaching a nonsteady (potentiodynamic) state. Changes in the Co and Mn valence states were simultaneous and exhibited periodic patterns that tracked the cyclic potential sweeps. To the best of our knowledge, this represents the first study, using in situ XAS, to resolve the synergistic catalytic mechanism of a bimetallic oxide. Strategies developed/described herein can provide a promising approach to unveil the reaction mechanism for other multimetallic electrocatalysts.

Understanding Conversion-Type Electrodes for Lithium Rechargeable Batteries.

The need/desire to lower the consumption of fossil fuels and its environmental consequences has reached unprecedented levels in recent years. A global effort has been undertaken to develop advanced renewable energy generation and especially energy storage technologies, as they would enable a dramatic increase in the effective and efficient use of renewable (and often intermittent) energy sources. The development of electrical energy storage (EES) technologies with high energy and power densities, long life, low cost, and safe use represents a challenge from both the fundamental science and technological application points of view. While the advent and broad deployment of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has dramatically changed the EES landscape, their performance metrics need to be greatly enhanced to keep pace with the ever-increasing demands imposed by modern consumer electronics and especially the emerging automotive markets. Current battery technologies are mostly based on the use of a transition metal oxide cathode (e.g., LiCoO2, LiFePO4, or LiNiMnCoO2) and a graphite anode, both of which depend on intercalation/insertion of lithium ions for operation. While the cathode material currently limits the battery capacity and overall energy density, there is a great deal of interest in the development of high-capacity cathode materials as well as anode materials. Conversion reaction materials have been identified/proposed as potentially high-energy-density alternatives to intercalation-based materials. However, conversion reaction materials react during lithiation to form entirely new products, often with dramatically changed structure and chemistry, by reaction mechanisms that are still not completely understood. This makes it difficult to clearly distinguish the limitations imposed by the mechanism and practical losses from initial particle morphology, synthetic approaches, and electrode preparations. Transition metal compounds such as transition metal oxides, sulfides, fluorides, phosphides, and nitrides can undergo conversion reactions yielding materials with high theoretical capacity (generally from 500 to 1500 mA h g-1). In particular, a number of transition metal oxides and sulfides have shown excellent electrochemical properties as high-capacity anode materials. In addition, some transition metal fluorides have shown great potential as cathode materials for Li rechargeable batteries. In this Account we present mechanistic studies, with emphasis on the use of operando methods, of selected examples of conversion-type materials as both potentially high-energy-density anodes and cathodes in EES applications. We also include examples of the conceptually similar conversion-type reactions involving chalcogens and halogens, with emphasis on the Li-S system. In this case we focus on the problems arising from the low electrical conductivities of elemental sulfur and Li2S and the "redox shuttle" phenomena of polysulfides. In addition to mechanistic insights from the use of operando methods, we also cover several key strategies in electrode materials design such as controlling the size, morphology, composition, and architecture.

Multidimensional Anodized Titanium Foam Photoelectrode for Efficient Utilization of Photons in Mesoscopic Solar Cells.

Mesoscopic solar cells based on nanostructured oxide semiconductors are considered as a promising candidates to replace conventional photovoltaics employing costly materials. However, their overall performances are below the sufficient level required for practical usages. Herein, this study proposes an anodized Ti foam (ATF) with multidimensional and hierarchical architecture as a highly efficient photoelectrode for the generation of a large photocurrent. ATF photoelectrodes prepared by electrochemical anodization of freeze-cast Ti foams have three favorable characteristics: (i) large surface area for enhanced light harvesting, (ii) 1D semiconductor structure for facilitated charge collection, and (iii) 3D highly conductive metallic current collector that enables exclusion of transparent conducting oxide substrate. Based on these advantages, when ATF is utilized in dye-sensitized solar cells, short-circuit photocurrent density up to 22.0 mA cm-2 is achieved in the conventional N719 dye-I3- /I- redox electrolyte system even with an intrinsically inferior quasi-solid electrolyte.

Multigenerational Effects of the Antibiotic Tetracycline on Transcriptional Responses of Daphnia magna and Its Relationship to Higher Levels of Biological Organizations.

Given the risk of environmental pollution by pharmaceutical compounds and the effects of these compounds on exposed ecosystems, ecologically relevant and realistic assessments are required. However, many studies have been mostly focused on individual responses in a single generation exposed to one-effect concentrations. Here, transcriptional responses of the crustacean Daphnia magna to the antibiotic tetracycline across multiple generations and effect concentrations were investigated. The results demonstrated that tetracycline induced different transcriptional responses of daphnids that were dependent on dose and generation. For example, reproduction-related expressed sequence tags (ESTs), including vitellogenin, were distinctly related to the dose-dependent tetracycline exposure, whereas multigenerational exposure induced significant change of molting-related ESTs such as cuticle protein. A total of 65 ESTs were shared in all contrasts, suggesting a conserved mechanism of tetracycline toxicity regardless of exposure concentration or time. Most of them were associated with general stress responses including translation, protein and carbohydrate metabolism, and oxidative phosphorylation. In addition, effects across the dose-response curve showed higher correlative connections among transcriptional, physiological, and individual responses than multigenerational effects. In the multigenerational exposure, the connectivity between adjacent generations decreased with increasing generation number. The results clearly highlight that exposure concentration and time trigger different mechanisms and functions, providing further evidence that multigenerational and dose-response effects cannot be neglected in environmental risk assessment.

Iron Oxide Photoelectrode with Multidimensional Architecture for Highly Efficient Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting.

Nanostructured metal oxide semiconductors have shown outstanding performances in photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting, but limitations in light harvesting and charge collection have necessitated further advances in photoelectrode design. Herein, we propose anodized Fe foams (AFFs) with multidimensional nano/micro-architectures as a highly efficient photoelectrode for PEC water splitting. Fe foams fabricated by freeze-casting and sintering were electrochemically anodized and directly used as photoanodes. We verified the superiority of our design concept by achieving an unprecedented photocurrent density in PEC water splitting over 5 mA cm-2 before the dark current onset, which originated from the large surface area and low electrical resistance of the AFFs. A photocurrent of over 6.8 mA cm-2 and an accordingly high incident photon-to-current efficiency of over 50 % at 400 nm were achieved with incorporation of Co oxygen evolution catalysts. In addition, research opportunities for further advances by structual and compositional modifications are discussed, which can resolve the low fill factoring behavior and improve the overall performance.

Conversion Reaction-Based Oxide Nanomaterials for Lithium Ion Battery Anodes.

Developing high-energy-density electrodes for lithium ion batteries (LIBs) is of primary importance to meet the challenges in electronics and automobile industries in the near future. Conversion reaction-based transition metal oxides are attractive candidates for LIB anodes because of their high theoretical capacities. This review summarizes recent advances on the development of nanostructured transition metal oxides for use in lithium ion battery anodes based on conversion reactions. The oxide materials covered in this review include oxides of iron, manganese, cobalt, copper, nickel, molybdenum, zinc, ruthenium, chromium, and tungsten, and mixed metal oxides. Various kinds of nanostructured materials including nanowires, nanosheets, hollow structures, porous structures, and oxide/carbon nanocomposites are discussed in terms of their LIB anode applications.

Hybrid Cellular Nanosheets for High-Performance Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes.

We report a simple synthetic method of carbon-based hybrid cellular nanosheets that exhibit outstanding electrochemical performance for many key aspects of lithium-ion battery electrodes. The nanosheets consist of close-packed cubic cavity cells partitioned by carbon walls, resembling plant leaf tissue. We loaded carbon cellular nanosheets with SnO2 nanoparticles by vapor deposition method and tested the performance of the resulting SnO2-carbon nanosheets as anode materials. The specific capacity is 914 mAh g(-1) on average with a retention of 97.0% during 300 cycles, and the reversible capacity is decreased by only 20% as the current density is increased from 200 to 3000 mA g(-1). In order to explain the excellent electrochemical performance, the hybrid cellular nanosheets were analyzed with cyclic voltammetry, in situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. We found that the high packing density, large interior surface area, and rigid carbon wall network are responsible for the high specific capacity, lithiation/delithiation reversibility, and cycling stability. Furthermore, the nanosheet structure leads to the high rate capability due to fast Li-ion diffusion in the thickness direction.

Soft template strategy to synthesize iron oxide-titania yolk-shell nanoparticles as high-performance anode materials for lithium-ion battery applications.

Yolk-shell-structured nanoparticles with iron oxide core, void, and a titania shell configuration are prepared by a simple soft template method and used as the anode material for lithium ion batteries. The iron oxide-titania yolk-shell nanoparticles (IO@void@TNPs) exhibit a higher and more stable capacity than simply mixed nanoparticles of iron oxide and hollow titania because of the unique structure obtained by the perfect separation between iron oxide nanoparticles, in combination with the adequate internal void space provided by stable titania shells. Moreover, the structural effect of IO@void@TNPs clearly demonstrates that the capacity retention value after 50 cycles is approximately 4 times that for IONPs under harsh operating conditions, that is, when the temperature is increased to 80 °C.

Enhanced Biodegradability of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products by Ionizing Radiation.

The radiolytic degradation of antibiotic compounds, including lincomycin (LMC), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), and tetracycline (TCN), and the change of biodegradability of the radiation-treated target compounds were evaluated. As a result, the degradation of target antibiotics by hydrolysis, biodegradation, and gamma irradiation showed a compound-dependent manner. However, the biodegradability of all target compounds was enhanced by the gamma irradiation. The enhanced biodegradability after gamma irradiation (2 kGy) followed the trend of LMC (18.89%)