Over-expression of p190RhoGEF enhances B-cell activation and germinal center formation in T-cell-dependent humoral immune responses.

Previously, we reported induced expression of the p190 Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor (p190RhoGEF, ARHGEF28) following CD40 stimulation of B cells isolated from mouse spleen. We also reported that p190RhoGEF and a downstream effector molecule RhoA are required for B-cell differentiation, especially for the induction of the plasma cell (PC) differentiation. This study investigates the role of p190RhoGEF in B-cell biology in vivo, using p190RhoGEF transgenic (TG) mice that overexpress a wild-type full gene in B cells. Immunization of these mice with T-cell-dependent antigen showed that populations of germinal center B cells and PCs were significantly increased in TG mice. Furthermore, similar results were shown in recombination activating 1 (Rag1) knockout mice that were reconstituted with B cells isolated from TG mice in combination with T cells isolated from littermate control mice. Analyses of isotype class switching and transcription factors involved in a germinal center reaction and PC differentiation also supported the findings from the cellular responses. These results suggest that p190RhoGEF may play a role in the stage of PC differentiation during T-cell-dependent humoral immune responses.

HBx induces hypomethylation of distal intragenic CpG islands required for active expression of developmental regulators.

Epigenetic alterations caused by viral oncoproteins are strong initiation factors for cancer development, but their mechanisms are largely unknown. To identify the epigenetic effects of viral hepatitis B virus X (HBx) that lead to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), we profiled the DNA methylomes of normal and HBx transgenic mouse liver. Intriguingly, severe hypomethylation of intragenic CpG islands (CGIs) was observed in HBx liver before the full development of HCC. Normally, these CGIs were highly methylated (mCGIs) by the DNMT3L complex and marked with epigenetic signatures associated with active expression, such as H3K36me3. Hypomethylation of mCGI was caused by the downregulation of Dnmt3L and Dnmt3a due to HBx bound to their promoters, along with HDAC1. These events lead to the downregulation of many developmental regulators that could facilitate tumorigenesis. Here we provide an intriguing epigenetic regulation mediated by mCGI that is required for cell differentiation and describe a previously unidentified epigenetic role for HBx in promoting HCC development.

27-Hydroxycholesterol and 7alpha-hydroxycholesterol trigger a sequence of events leading to migration of CCR5-expressing Th1 lymphocytes.

Th1 lymphocytes are predominant in atherosclerotic lesions. However, mechanisms involved in the Th1 predominance are unknown. We have investigated the possibility of Th1 lymphocyte recruitment in a cholesterol-rich milieu. A high cholesterol diet resulted in enhanced expression of CCR5 ligands, including CCL3 and CCL4, but not of proatherogenic CXCR3 ligands, in atherosclerotic arteries of ApoE(-/-) mice. 27-Hydroxycholesterol and 7α-hydroxycholesterol, cholesterol oxides (oxysterols) detected in abundance in atherosclerotic lesions, greatly induced the transcription of CCL3 and CCL4 genes in addition to enhancing secretion of corresponding proteins by THP-1 monocytic cells. However, an identical or even higher concentration of cholesterol, 7ß-hydroxycholesterol, and 7-ketocholsterol did not influence expression of these chemokines. Conditioned media containing the CCR5 ligands secreted from THP-1 cells induced migration of Jurkat T cells expressing CCR5, a characteristic chemokine receptor of Th1 cells, but not of Jurkat T cells that do not express CCR5. The migration of CCR5-expressing Jurkat T cells was abrogated in the presence of a CCR5-neutralizing antibody. 27-Hydroxycholesterol and 7α-hydroxycholesterol enhanced phosphorylation of Akt. Pharmacological inhibitors of phosphoinositide-3-kinase/Akt pathways blocked transcription as well as secretion of CCL3 and CCL4 in conjunction with attenuated migration of CCR5-expressing Jurkat T cells. This is the first report on the involvement of cholesterol oxides in migration of distinct subtype of T cells. We propose that 27-hydroxycholesterol and 7α-hydroxycholesterol can trigger a sequence of events that leads to recruitment of Th1 lymphocytes and phosphoinositide-3-kinase/Akt pathways play a major role in the process.

DeSUMOylating isopeptidase: a second class of SUMO protease.

The modification of proteins by small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) is crucial for the regulation of diverse cellular processes. Protein SUMOylation is reversed by isopeptidases, collectively known as deSUMOylases. Only one family of SUMO-specific proteases has been described so far: the sentrin-specific proteases (SENP). Here, we identify and characterize a new deSUMOylase, which we have named DeSI-1 (DeSumoylating Isopeptidase 1). We describe BZEL­a new transcriptional repressor­as substrate of DeSI-1. DeSI-1 catalyses the deSUMOylation, but not the deubiquitination, of BZEL. Furthermore, the SENP substrates PML and ΔNp63 are not deSUMOylated by DeSI-1, suggesting that SENP and DeSI enzymes recognize different sets of substrates. Together, these data identify a second class of SUMO proteases.

Crystal structure of DeSI-1, a novel deSUMOylase belonging to a putative isopeptidase superfamily.

Post-translational modification by small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) can be reversed by sentrin/SUMO-specific proteases (SENPs), the first known class of deSUMOylase. Recently, we identified a new deSUMOylating enzyme DeSI-1, which is distinct from SENPs and belongs to the putative deubiquitinating isopeptidase PPPDE superfamily. Herein, we report the crystal structure of DeSI-1, revealing that this enzyme forms a homodimer and that the groove between the two subunits is the active site harboring two absolutely conserved cysteine and histidine residues that form a catalytic dyad. We also show that DeSI-1 exhibits an extremely low endopeptidase activity toward precursor forms of SUMO-1 and SUMO-2, unlike SENPs.

SOCS-6 negatively regulates T cell activation through targeting p56lck to proteasomal degradation.

The T cell-specific tyrosine kinase, p56(lck), plays crucial roles in T cell receptor (TCR)-mediated T cell activation. Here, we report that SOCS-6 (suppressor of cytokine signaling-6) is a negative regulator of p56(lck). SOCS-6 was identified as a protein binding to the kinase domain of p56(lck) through yeast two-hybrid screening. SOCS-6 bound specifically to p56(lck) (F505), which mimics the active form of p56(lck), but not to wild type p56(lck). In Jurkat T cells, SOCS-6 binding to p56(lck) was detected 1-2 h after TCR stimulation. Confocal microscopy showed that upon APC-T cell conjugation, SOCS-6 was recruited to the immunological synapse and colocalized with the active form of p56(lck). SOCS-6 promoted p56(lck) ubiquitination and its subsequent targeting to the proteasome. Moreover, SOCS-6 overexpression led to repression of TCR-dependent interleukin-2 promoter activity. These results establish that SOCS-6 acts as a negative regulator of T cell activation by promoting ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis.

LIME, a novel transmembrane adaptor protein, associates with p56lck and mediates T cell activation.

In this study, we identify and characterize a novel transmembrane adaptor protein, designated Lck-interacting membrane protein (LIME), as a binding partner of the Lck Src homology (SH)2 domain. LIME possesses a short extracellular domain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic tail containing five tyrosine-based motifs. The protein is primarily expressed in hematopoietic cells and lung. Interestingly, LIME expression is up-regulated by TCR stimulation and sustained up to 24 h, suggesting that LIME acts throughout the early to late stages of T cell activation. LIME is localized to membrane rafts and distributed within the T cell-APC contact site. Upon TCR stimulation of Jurkat T cells, LIME associates with Lck as a tyrosine-phosphorylated protein. Experiments using Jurkat T cells expressing CD8-LIME chimera reveal that the protein associates with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Grb2, Gads, and SHP2, and activates ERK1/2 and JNK but not p38. Moreover, overexpression of LIME in Jurkat T cells induces transcriptional activation of the IL-2 promoter. Our data collectively show that LIME is a raft-associated transmembrane adaptor protein linking TCR stimuli to downstream signaling pathways via associations with Lck.

The Transmembrane Adaptor Protein LIME Is Essential for Chemokine-Mediated Migration of Effector T Cells to Inflammatiory Sites.

Lck-interacting transmembrane adaptor 1 (LIME) has been previously identified as a raft-associated transmembrane protein expressed predominantly in T and B lymphocytes. Although LIME is shown to transduce the immunoreceptor signaling and immunological synapse formation via its tyrosine phosphorylation by Lck, a Src-family kinase, the in vivo function of LIME has remained elusive in the previous studies. Here we report that LIME is preferentially expressed in effector T cells and mediates chemokine-mediated T cell migration. Interestingly, in LIME-/- mice, while T cell receptor stimulation-dependent proliferation, differentiation to effector T cells, cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) function and regulatory T lymphocyte (Treg) function were normal, only T cell-mediated inflammatory response was significantly defective. The reduced inflammation was accompanied by the impaired infiltration of leukocytes and T cells to the inflammatory sites of LIME-/- mice. More specifically, the absence of LIME in effector T cells resulted in the reduced migration and defective morphological polarization in response to inflammatory chemokines such as CCL5 and CXCL10. Consistently, LIME-/- effector T cells were found to be defective in chemokine-mediated activation of Rac1 and Rap1, and dysregulated phosphorylation of Pyk2 and Cas. Taken together, the present findings show that LIME is a critical regulator of inflammatory chemokine-mediated signaling and the subsequent migration of effector T cells to inflammatory sites.

SMILE, a new orphan nuclear receptor SHP-interacting protein, regulates SHP-repressed estrogen receptor transactivation.

SHP (small heterodimer partner) is a well-known NR (nuclear receptor) co-regulator. In the present study, we have identified a new SHP-interacting protein, termed SMILE (SHP-interacting leucine zipper protein), which was previously designated as ZF (Zhangfei) via a yeast two-hybrid system. We have determined that the SMILE gene generates two isoforms [SMILE-L (long isoform of SMILE) and SMILE-S (short isoform of SMILE)]. Mutational analysis has demonstrated that the SMILE isoforms arise from the alternative usage of initiation codons. We have confirmed the in vivo interaction and co-localization of the SMILE isoforms and SHP. Domain-mapping analysis indicates that the entire N-terminus of SHP and the middle region of SMILE-L are involved in this interaction. Interestingly, the SMILE isoforms counteract the SHP repressive effect on the transactivation of ERs (estrogen receptors) in HEK-293T cells (human embryonic kidney cells expressing the large T-antigen of simian virus 40), but enhance the SHP-repressive effect in MCF-7, T47D and MDA-MB-435 cells. Knockdown of SMILE gene expression using siRNA (small interfering RNA) in MCF-7 cells increases ER-mediated transcriptional activity. Moreover, adenovirus-mediated overexpression of SMILE and SHP down-regulates estrogen-induced mRNA expression of the critical cell-cycle regulator E2F1. Collectively, these results indicate that SMILE isoforms regulate the inhibition of ER transactivation by SHP in a cell-type-specific manner and act as a novel transcriptional co-regulator in ER signalling.

SuPr-1-mediated desumoylation regulates the repressor activity of DeltaNp63alpha.

DeltaNp63alpha is exclusively expressed in stem cells and progenitor cells of the stratified epithelia. It promotes cell proliferation by antagonizing p53 and related TAp63/TAp73. Here, we report that specific desumoylation by SUMO protease SuPr-1 provides a fine-tuning mechanism for DeltaNp63alpha repressor activity. We found that disrupting the sumoylation site compromised DeltaNp63alpha repressor activity profoundly against TAp63gamma and TAp73beta-mediated transcription activation, but not to p53-mediated transcription. We further found that SuPr-1 specifically bound to sumoylated DeltaNp63alpha and hydrolyzed SUMO. Consequently, SuPr-1 expression reduced DeltaNp63alpha repressor activity to TAp63gamma and TAp73beta, whereas p53-mediated transactivation was unaffected. Collectively, these data suggest that SuPr-1-mediated DeltaNp63alpha desumoylation elaborately regulates epithelial growth.

A proteomics approach for the identification of nucleophosmin and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein C1/C2 as chromatin-binding proteins in response to DNA double-strand breaks.

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) of chromosomal DNA trigger the cellular response that activates the pathways for DNA repair and cell-cycle checkpoints, and sometimes the pathways leading to cell death if the damage is too severe to be tolerated. Evidence indicates that, upon generation of DNA DSBs, many nuclear proteins that are involved in DNA repair and checkpoints are recruited to chromatin around the DNA lesions. In the present study we used a proteomics approach to identify DNA-damage-induced chromatin-binding proteins in a systematic way. Two-dimensional gel analysis for protein extracts of chromatin from DNA-damage-induced and control HeLa cells identified four proteins as the candidates for DNA-damage-induced chromatin-binding proteins. MALDI-TOF (matrix-assisted laser-desorption ionization-time-of-flight) MS analysis identified these proteins to be NPM (nucleophosmin), hnRNP (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein) C1, hnRNP C2 and 37-kDa laminin-receptor precursor, and the identity of these proteins was further confirmed by immunoblot analysis with specific antibodies. We then demonstrated with chromatin-binding assays that NPM and hnRNP C1/C2, the abundant nuclear proteins with pleiotropic functions, indeed bind to chromatin in a DNA-damage-dependent manner, implicating these proteins in DNA repair and/or damage response. Immunofluorescence experiments showed that NPM, normally present in the nucleoli, is mobilized into the nucleoplasm after DNA damage, and that neither NPM nor hnRNP C1/C2 is actively recruited to the sites of DNA breaks. These results suggest that NPM and hnRNP C1/C2 may function at the levels of the global context of chromatin, rather than by specifically targeting the broken DNA.

LIME mediates immunological synapse formation through activation of VAV.

Lck Interacting Membrane protein (LIME) was previously characterized as a transmembrane adaptor protein mediating TCR-dependent T cell activation. Here, we show that LIME associates with Vav in response to TCR stimulation and is required for Vav guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) activity for Rac1. Consistent with this finding, actin polymerization at the immunological synapse (IS) was markedly enhanced by overexpression of LIME, but was reduced by expression of a LIME shRNA. Moreover, TCR-mediated cell adhesion to ICAM-1, laminin, or fibronectin was downregulated by expression of LIME shRNA. In addition, in the IS, LIME but not LAT was found to localize at the peripheral-supramolecular activation cluster (p-SMAC) where the integrins were previously shown to be localized. Together, these results establish LIME as a transmembrane adaptor protein linking TCR stimulation to IS formation and integrin activation through activation of Vav.

Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 1 increases chemo-resistance of cancer cells via cytoplasmic sequestration of Pim-1.

Improved treatment of EBV positive lymphoma depends on the identification of molecular mechanism underlying chemo-resistance. LMP1 is an essential transmembrane protein for EBV-induced immortalization of hematopoietic cells. Herein, we show that an oncogenic Pim-1 is translocated to the cytoplasm by LMP1. Three lines of evidence indicate that cytoplasmic sequestration of Pim-1 may be required for LMP1-induced cancer cell survival. First, Pim-1 enhanced the survival of LMP1-overexpressing cells treated with doxorubicin. Second, nuclear export of Pim-1 was sufficient to increase the survival. Third, knockdown of Pim-1 effectively suppressed LMP-1-induced survival of cancer cells. Collectively, these data suggest that Pim-1 is a downstream target of LMP1, and that it contributes to the chemo-resistance of cancer cells.

Transmembrane adaptor proteins positively regulating the activation of lymphocytes.

Engagement of the immunoreceptors initiates signaling cascades resulting in lymphocyte activation and differentiation to effector cells, which are essential for the elimination of pathogens from the body. For the transduction of these immunoreceptor-mediated signals, several linker proteins termed transmembrane adaptor proteins (TRAPs) were shown to be required. TRAPs serve as platforms for the assembly and membrane targeting of the specific signaling proteins. Among seven TRAPs identified so far, LAT and LIME were shown to act as a positive regulator in TCR-mediated signaling pathways. In this review, we will discuss the functions of LAT and LIME in modulating T cell development, activation and differentiation.

The effector functions of mature T lymphocytes are impaired in transgenic mice expressing the SH2 domain of TSAd/Lad.

TSAd/Lad is a T cell adaptor molecule involved in p56(lck)-mediated T cell activation. To investigate the functions of TSAd in T cells, we generated transgenic (TG) mice expressing the SH2 domain of TSAd (TSAd-SH2) under the control of the p56(lck) proximal promoter. In T cells from TSAd-SH2 TG mice, T cell receptor (TCR)-mediated early signaling events, such as Ca(2+) flux and ERK activation, were normal; however, late activation events, such as IL-2 production and proliferation, were significantly reduced. Moreover, TCR-induced cell adhesion to extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and migration through ECM proteins were defective in T cells from TSAd-SH2 TG mice. Furthermore, the contact hypersensitivity (CHS) reaction, an inflammatory response mainly mediated by T helper 1 (Th1) cells, was inhibited in TSAd-SH2 TG mice. Taken together, these results show that TSAd, particularly the SH2 domain of TSAd, is essential for the effector functions of T cells.

The adaptor protein LAD/TSAd mediates laminin-dependent T cell migration via association with the 67 kDa laminin binding protein.

The adaptor protein, LAD/TSAd, plays essential roles in T cell activation. To further understand the functions of this protein, we performed yeast two-hybrid screening using TSAd as bait and identified 67 kDa laminin binding protein (LBP) as the interacting partner. Subsequently, TSAd-LBP interaction was confirmed in D1.1 T cell line. Upon costimulation by T cell receptor (TCR) plus laminin crosslinking or TCR plus integrin alpha6 crosslinking, LBP was coimmunoprecipitated with TSAd. Moreover, TCR plus laminin costimulation-dependent T cell migration was enhanced in D1.1 T cells overexpressing TSAd but was disrupted in D1.1 cells overexpressing dominant negative form of TSAd or TSAd shRNA. These data show that, upon TCR plus integrin costimulation, TSAd associates with LBP and mediates T lymphocyte migration.

The adaptor protein Lad associates with the G protein beta subunit and mediates chemokine-dependent T-cell migration.

Lck-interacting adaptor protein/Rlk/Itk-binding protein (Lad/RIBP) was previously identified as an adaptor protein involved in TCR-mediated T-cell activation. To elucidate the functions of Lad further, we here performed yeast 2-hybrid screening using Lad as bait and discovered that the G protein beta subunit (G beta) is a Lad-binding partner. Since the most well-known G protein-coupled receptor in T cells is the chemokine receptor, we investigated whether Lad is involved in chemokine signaling. We found that, upon chemokine treatment, Lad associated with G beta in Jurkat T cells. Furthermore, ectopic expression of dominant-negative Lad or the reduction of endogenous Lad expression by siRNA impaired the chemokine-induced migration of T cells, indicating that Lad is required for chemokine-induced T-cell migration. Subsequent investigation of the signaling pathways revealed that, in response to chemokine, Lad associated with the tyrosine kinases Lck and Zap-70 and that Lad was essential for the activation of Zap-70. Moreover, Lad was required for the chemokine-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation of focal adhesion molecules that included Pyk2 and paxillin. Taken together, these data show that, upon chemokine stimulation, Lad acts as an adaptor protein that links the G protein beta subunit to the tyrosine kinases Lck and Zap-70, thereby mediating T-cell migration.

LIME acts as a transmembrane adapter mediating BCR-dependent B-cell activation.

Assembly of a signaling complex around the transmembrane adapter LAT is essential for the transmission of T-cell receptor (TCR)-mediated signaling. However, a LAT-like molecule responsible for the initial activation events in B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling has not yet been identified. Here, we show that LIME is a transmembrane adaptor required for BCR-mediated B-cell activation. LIME was found to be expressed in mouse splenic B cells. Upon BCR cross-linking, LIME was tyrosine phosphorylated by Lyn and associated with Lyn, Grb2, PLC-gamma2, and PI3K. Reduction of LIME expression by the introduction of siRNA resulted in the disruption of BCR-mediated activation of MAPK, calcium flux, NF-AT, PI3K, and NF-kappaB. Taken together, these results establish that LIME is an essential transmembrane adaptor linking BCR ligation to the downstream signaling events that lead to B-cell activation.

A dominant negative form of p63 inhibits apoptosis in a p53-independent manner.

Stem cells are a source of differentiated cells in multiple tissues. If genetic alterations occur in stem cells, the problem persists and malignant cancers may arise. DeltaNp63alpha-a homologue of the tumor suppressor p53-is exclusively expressed in proliferating undifferentiated epithelial cells and cancer cells of epidermal origin. Here, we show that DeltaNp63alpha antagonizes DNA damage-induced apoptosis in a p53-independent manner. We found that upon cellular injury, DeltaNp63alpha must be downregulated before apoptotic program can be activated. The 5637 cell line has abundant levels of DeltaNp63alpha and mutant p53, and it is resistant to DNA damage-induced apoptosis. The knockdown of DeltaNp63alpha by RNA interference sensitized these cells to apoptosis upon genotoxic insult. This suggests that DeltaNp63alpha plays an anti-apoptotic role regardless of the p53 status. Considering the frequent mutations of p53 in tumor cells, our results provide important implications for the treatment of cancers in which p63 is amplified.

Transmembrane domain-induced oligomerization is crucial for the functions of syndecan-2 and syndecan-4.

The syndecans are known to form homologous oligomers that may be important for their functions. We have therefore determined the role of oligomerization of syndecan-2 and syndecan-4. A series of glutathione S-transferase-syndecan-2 and syndecan-4 chimeric proteins showed that all syndecan constructs containing the transmembrane domain formed SDS-resistant dimers, but not those lacking it. SDS-resistant dimer formation was hardly seen in the syndecan chimeras where each transmembrane domain was substituted with that of platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR). Increased MAPK activity was detected in HEK293T cells transfected with syndecan/PDGFR chimeras in a syndecan transmembrane domain-dependent fashion. The chimera-induced MAPK activation was independent of both ligand and extracellular domain, implying that the transmembrane domain is sufficient to induce dimerization/oligomerization in vivo. Furthermore, the syndecan chimeras were defective in syndecan-4-mediated focal adhesion formation and protein kinase Calpha activation or in syndecan-2-mediated cell migration. Taken together, these data suggest that the transmembrane domains are sufficient for inducing dimerization and that transmembrane domain-induced oligomerization is crucial for syndecan-2 and syndecan-4 functions.