Crown Macromolecular Derivatives: Stepwise Design of New Types of Polyfunctionalized Phosphorus Dendrimers.

Phosphorus dendrimers are used for many applications in different domains including nanomedicine as cargo of drugs or as species active per se but also in a variety of other fields ranging from nanoscience to catalysis. Their properties depend on the nature of their internal structure and mainly of the diversity and versatility of the functional groups located on their outer shell. Therefore, there is a need to diversify their structure in order to use them for new applications and to propose alternative synthetic pathways to be built easily, at each step and in high yield a family of original stable phosphorus dendrimers of different generations. Such a goal is illustrated in this report with the original synthesis of 14 new phosphorus dendrimers of generation 0 to 2 and the possibility to modify at will their internal structure and the nature of their functional end groups.

Dendritic Macromolecular Architectures: Dendrimer-Based Polyion Complex Micelles.

Polymeric micelles are nanoassemblies that are formed by spontaneous arrangement of amphiphilic block copolymers in aqueous solutions at critical micelle concentration (CMC). They represent an effective system for drug delivery of, for instance, poorly water-soluble anticancer drugs. Then, the development of polyion complexes (PICs) were emphasized. The morphology of these complexes depends on the topology of the polyelectrolytes used and the way they are assembled. For instance, ionic-hydrophilic block copolymers have been used for the preparation of PIC micelles. The main limitation in the use of PIC micelles is their potential instability during the self-assembly/disassembly processes, influenced by several parameters, such as polyelectrolyte concentration, deionization associated with pH, ionic strength due to salt medium effects, mixing ratio, and PIC particle cross-linking. To overcome these issues, the preparation of stable PIC micelles by increasing the rigidity of their dendritic architecture by the introduction of dendrimers and controlling their number within micelle scaffold was highlighted. In this original concise Review, we will describe the preparation, molecular characteristics, and pharmacological profile of these stable nanoassemblies.

In Search of a Phosphorus Dendrimer-Based Carrier of Rose Bengal: Tyramine Linker Limits Fluorescent and Phototoxic Properties of a Photosensitizer.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a skin cancer treatment alternative to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. This method exploits three elements: a phototoxic compound (photosensitizer), light source and oxygen. Upon irradiation by light of a specific wavelength, the photosensitizer generates reactive oxygen species triggering the cascade of reactions leading to cell death. The positive therapeutic effect of PDT may be limited due to low solubility, low tumor specificity and inefficient cellular uptake of photosensitizers. A promising approach to overcome these obstacles involves the use of nanocarrier systems. The aim of this initial study was to determine the potential of the application of phosphorus dendrimers as carriers of a photosensitizer-rose bengal (RB). The primary goal involved the synthesis and in vitro studies of covalent drug-dendrimer conjugates. Our approach allowed us to obtain RB-dendrimer conjugates with the use of tyramine as an aromatic linker between the carrier and the drug. The compounds were characterized by FT-IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, 31P NMR, size and zeta potential measurements and spectrofluorimetric analysis. The dialysis to check the drug release from the conjugate, flow cytometry to specify intracellular uptake, and singlet oxygen generation assay were also applied. Finally, we used MTT assay to determine the biological activity of the tested compounds. The results of our experiments indicate that the conjugation of RB to phosphorus dendrimers via the tyramine linker decreases photodynamic activity of RB.

Dendrimer-Enabled Therapeutic Antisense Delivery Systems as Innovation in Medicine.

Antisense oligonucleotide (AON)-based therapies concern the treatment for genetic disorders or infections such as a range of neurodegenerative and neuromuscular diseases and have shown benefits in animal models and patients. Nevertheless, successes in the clinic are still strongly limited by unfavorable biodistribution and poor cellular uptake of AONs. Dendrimer macromolecules are synthetically accessible and consist of a core with repeated iterations (named branches) surrounding this core, and on the periphery functional groups which can be modified for ligand attachment. The generations of these branched nanoparticles are based on the number of branches emanating from the core with layered architectures. Dendrimers show promise in several biomedical applications based on their tunable surface modifications allowing the adjustment of their in vivo behavior related to biocompatibility and pharmacokinetic parameters. Dendrimers can be used as nanocarriers of various types of drugs including AONs or nanodrugs. As nanocarriers, polycationic dendrimers can complex multiple negatively charged DNA oligonucleotides on their surface and form stable complexes to promote internalization into the cells based on a good cell membrane affinity. These nanocarriers complexing antisense oligonucleotides must be stable enough to reach the cellular target, but with adequate in vivo global clearance, and have good pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) profiles. This Review was designed to analyze the development of AONs carried by polycationic and polyanionic (few example) dendrimers. This Review strongly supports the idea that dendrimers, with adequate modulation of their terminal groups, could be used to carry AONs in cells.

Dendrimers in combination with natural products and analogues as anti-cancer agents.

For the first time, an overview of dendrimers in combination with natural products and analogues as anti-cancer agents is presented. This reflects the development of drug delivery systems, such as dendrimers, to tackle cancers. The most significant advantages of using dendrimers in nanomedicine are their high biocompatibility, good water solubility, and their entry - with or without encapsulated, complexed or conjugated drugs - through an endocytosis process. This strategy has accelerated over the years in order to develop nanosystems as nanocarriers, to decrease the intrinsic toxicity of anti-cancer agents, to decrease the drug side effects, to increase the efficacy of the treatment, and consequently to improve patient compliance.

Cationic Phosphorus Dendrimer Enhances Photodynamic Activity of Rose Bengal against Basal Cell Carcinoma Cell Lines.

In the last couple of decades, photodynamic therapy emerged as a useful tool in the treatment of basal cell carcinoma. However, it still meets limitations due to unfavorable properties of photosensitizers such as poor solubility or lack of selectivity. Dendrimers, polymers widely studied in biomedical field, may play a role as photosensitizer carriers and improve the efficacy of photodynamic treatment. Here, we describe the evaluation of an electrostatic complex of cationic phosphorus dendrimer and rose bengal in such aspects as singlet oxygen production, cellular uptake, and phototoxicity against three basal cell carcinoma cell lines. Rose bengal-cationic dendrimer complex in molar ratio 5:1 was compared to free rose bengal. Obtained results showed that the singlet oxygen production in aqueous medium was significantly higher for the complex than for free rose bengal. The cellular uptake of the complex was 2-7-fold higher compared to a free photosensitizer. Importantly, rose bengal, rose bengal-dendrimer complex, and dendrimer itself showed no dark toxicity against all three cell lines. Moreover, we observed that phototoxicity of the complex was remarkably enhanced presumably due to high cellular uptake. On the basis of the obtained results, we conclude that rose bengal-cationic dendrimer complex has a potential in photodynamic treatment of basal cell carcinoma.

Complexing Methylene Blue with Phosphorus Dendrimers to Increase Photodynamic Activity.

The efficiency of photodynamic therapy is limited mainly due to low selectivity, unfavorable biodistribution of photosensitizers, and long-lasting skin sensitivity to light. However, drug delivery systems based on nanoparticles may overcome the limitations mentioned above. Among others, dendrimers are particularly attractive as carriers, because of their globular architecture and high loading capacity. The goal of the study was to check whether an anionic phosphorus dendrimer is suitable as a carrier of a photosensitizer-methylene blue (MB). As a biological model, basal cell carcinoma cell lines were used. We checked the influence of the MB complexation on its singlet oxygen production ability using a commercial fluorescence probe. Next, cellular uptake, phototoxicity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and cell death were investigated. The MB-anionic dendrimer complex (MB-1an) was found to generate less singlet oxygen; however, the complex showed higher cellular uptake and phototoxicity against basal cell carcinoma cell lines, which was accompanied with enhanced ROS production. Owing to the obtained results, we conclude that the photodynamic activity of MB complexed with an anionic dendrimer is higher than free MB against basal cell carcinoma cell lines.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) characterization of the interaction of anti-cancer photosensitizers with dendrimers.

The systemic or local administration of a photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy is highly limited by poor selectivity, rapid deactivation and long-lasting skin toxicity due to unfavorable biodistribution. Drug delivery systems based on nanocarriers may help specific and effective delivery of photosensitizers. In the present paper, the interaction of two photosensitizers, methylene blue and rose bengal, with phosphorous cationic and anionic dendrimers as potential nanocarriers, has been characterized. A novel method is presented based on the analysis of the infrared spectra of mixtures of photosensitizer and dendrimer. The capacity of dendrimers to bind the photosensitizers has been evaluated by obtaining the corresponding binding curves. It is shown that methylene blue interacts with both cationic and anionic dendrimers, whereas rose bengal only binds to the cationic ones. Dendrimers are shown to be potential nanocarriers for a specific delivery of both photosensitizers.

Advances in combination therapies based on nanoparticles for efficacious cancer treatment: an analytical report.

The main objective of nanomedicine research is the development of nanoparticles as drug delivery systems or drugs per se to tackle diseases as cancer, which are a leading cause of death with developed nations. Targeted treatments against solid tumors generally lead to dramatic regressions, but, unfortunately, the responses are often short-lived due to resistant cancer cells. In addition, one of the major challenges of combination drug therapy (called "cocktail") is the crucial optimization of different drug parameters. This issue can be solved using combination nanotherapy. Nanoparticles developed in oncology based on combination nanotherapy are either (a) those designed to combat multidrug resistance or (b) those used to circumvent resistance to clinical cancer drugs. This review provides an overview of the different nanoparticles currently used in clinical treatments in oncology. We analyze in detail the development of combinatorial nanoparticles including dendrimers for dual drug delivery via two strategic approaches: (a) use of chemotherapeutics and chemosensitizers to combat multidrug resistance and (b) use of multiple cytotoxic drugs. Finally, in this review, we discuss the challenges, clinical outlook, and perspectives of the nanoparticle-based combination therapy in cancer.

Mechanism of cationic phosphorus dendrimer toxicity against murine neural cell lines.

The purpose of this manuscript is to study the toxic responses against murine embryonic hippocampal cells (mHippoE-18) and neuroblastoma cells (N2a) to treatment with cationic phosphorus dendrimers (CPD). Two low generations of CPD--generation 2 (G2) and generation 3 (G3)--were applied to cell cultures to monitor events leading to either apoptosis or necrosis. These processes were analyzed using several bioassays, which included the detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) alterations, morphology changes, apoptotic and dead cells, cytochrome c (Cyt c) release, caspase 3 activity, DNA fragmentation, as well as changes in cell cycle phases distribution. The results showed that CPD became highly cytotoxic at concentrations above 1 µM and at 0.7 µM in the case of G3 for mHippoE-18 cells. The toxicity was manifested by a pronounced decrease in cell viability, which is correlated with disturbances in cellular activities, such as massive ROS generation. The breakdown of cellular processes leads mainly to the necrotic cell death. Our findings are of high importance in the context of further biomedical studies on CPD.

Organophosphorus chemistry for the synthesis of dendrimers.

Dendrimers are multifunctional, hyperbranched and perfectly defined macromolecules, synthesized layer after layer in an iterative manner. Besides the nature of the terminal groups responsible for most of the properties, the nature of the internal structure, and more precisely of the branching points, is also of crucial importance. For more than 15 years, we have demonstrated that the presence of phosphorus atom(s) at each branching point of the dendrimeric structure is particularly important and highly valuable for three main reasons: (i) the versatility of phosphorus chemistry that allows diversified organochemistry for the synthesis of dendrimers; (ii) the use of 31P-NMR, which is a highly valuable tool for the characterization of dendrimers; (iii) some properties (in the fields of catalysis, materials, and especially biology), that are directly connected to the nature of the internal structure and of the branching points. This review will give an overview of the methods of synthesis of phosphorus-containing dendrimers, as well on the ways to graft phosphorus derivatives as terminal groups, with emphasis on the various roles played by the chemistry of phosphorus.

Thiazoyl phosphines. Design, reactivity, and complexation.

In spite of the numerous possible applications of thiazoles as ligands for catalysis and as active molecules in medicinal chemistry, only a few studies have dealt with their versatile chemistry. Several selective modifications of the structure of these derivatives and mainly of thiazoyl phosphines are detailed, thus illustrating the great possibilities to tailor at will their structures and therefore their properties. The formation of Ru and Au complexes is reported. Six of these new thiazoyl phosphines were characterized by X-ray crystallography as well as two of their gold complexes.

Phosphorus dendrimers and photodynamic therapy. Spectroscopic studies on two dendrimer-photosensitizer complexes: Cationic phosphorus dendrimer with rose bengal and anionic phosphorus dendrimer with methylene blue.

Dendrimers due to their unique architecture may play an important role in drug delivery systems including chemotherapy, gene therapy and recently, photodynamic therapy as well. We investigated two dendrimer-photosensitizer systems in context of potential use of these systems in photodynamic therapy. The mixtures of an anionic phosphorus dendrimer of the second generation and methylene blue were studied by UV-vis spectroscopy while that of a cationic phosphorus dendrimer (third generation) and rose bengal were investigated by spectrofluorimetric methods. Spectroscopic analysis of these two systems revealed the formation of dendrimer-photosensitizer complexes via electrostatic interactions as well as π stacking. The stoichiometry of the rose bengal-cationic dendrimer complex was estimated to be 7:1 and 9:1 for the methylene blue-anionic dendrimer complex. The results suggest that these polyanionic or polycationic phosphorus dendrimers can be promising candidates as carriers in photodynamic therapy.

In vitro PAMAM, phosphorus and viologen-phosphorus dendrimers prevent rotenone-induced cell damage.

We have investigated whether polyamidoamine (PAMAM), phosphorus (pd) and viologen-phosphorus (vpd) dendrimers can prevent damage to embryonic mouse hippocampal cells (mHippoE-18) caused by rotenone, which is used as a pesticide, insecticide, and as a nonselective piscicide, that works by interfering with the electron transport chain in mitochondria. Several basic aspects, such as cell viability, production of reactive oxygen species and changes in mitochondrial transmembrane potential, were analyzed. mHippoE-18 cells were treated with these structurally different dendrimers at 0.1µM. A 1h incubation with dendrimers was followed by the addition of rotenone at 1µM, and a further 24h incubation. PAMAM, phosphorus and viologen-phosphorus dendrimers all increased cell viability (reduced cell death-data need to be compared with untreated controls). A lower level of reactive oxygen species and a favorable effect on mitochondrial system were found with PAMAM and viologen-phosphorus dendrimers. These results indicate reduced toxicity in the presence of dendrimers.