Three-dimensional atomic structure and local chemical order of medium- and high-entropy nanoalloys.

Medium- and high-entropy alloys (M/HEAs) mix several principal elements with near-equiatomic composition and represent a model-shift strategy for designing previously unknown materials in metallurgy1-8, catalysis9-14 and other fields15-18. One of the core hypotheses of M/HEAs is lattice distortion5,19,20, which has been investigated by different numerical and experimental techniques21-26. However, determining the three-dimensional (3D) lattice distortion in M/HEAs remains a challenge. Moreover, the presumed random elemental mixing in M/HEAs has been questioned by X-ray and neutron studies27, atomistic simulations28-30, energy dispersive spectroscopy31,32 and electron diffraction33,34, which suggest the existence of local chemical order in M/HEAs. However, direct experimental observation of the 3D local chemical order has been difficult because energy dispersive spectroscopy integrates the composition of atomic columns along the zone axes7,32,34 and diffuse electron reflections may originate from planar defects instead of local chemical order35. Here we determine the 3D atomic positions of M/HEA nanoparticles using atomic electron tomography36 and quantitatively characterize the local lattice distortion, strain tensor, twin boundaries, dislocation cores and chemical short-range order (CSRO). We find that the high-entropy alloys have larger local lattice distortion and more heterogeneous strain than the medium-entropy alloys and that strain is correlated to CSRO. We also observe CSRO-mediated twinning in the medium-entropy alloys, that is, twinning occurs in energetically unfavoured CSRO regions but not in energetically favoured CSRO ones, which represents, to our knowledge, the first experimental observation of correlating local chemical order with structural defects in any material. We expect that this work will not only expand our fundamental understanding of this important class of materials but also provide the foundation for tailoring M/HEA properties through engineering lattice distortion and local chemical order.

Determining the three-dimensional atomic structure of an amorphous solid.

Amorphous solids such as glass, plastics and amorphous thin films are ubiquitous in our daily life and have broad applications ranging from telecommunications to electronics and solar cells1-4. However, owing to the lack of long-range order, the three-dimensional (3D) atomic structure of amorphous solids has so far eluded direct experimental determination5-15. Here we develop an atomic electron tomography reconstruction method to experimentally determine the 3D atomic positions of an amorphous solid. Using a multi-component glass-forming alloy as proof of principle, we quantitatively characterize the short- and medium-range order of the 3D atomic arrangement. We observe that, although the 3D atomic packing of the short-range order is geometrically disordered, some short-range-order structures connect with each other to form crystal-like superclusters and give rise to medium-range order. We identify four types of crystal-like medium-range order-face-centred cubic, hexagonal close-packed, body-centred cubic and simple cubic-coexisting in the amorphous sample, showing translational but not orientational order. These observations provide direct experimental evidence to support the general framework of the efficient cluster packing model for metallic glasses10,12-14,16. We expect that this work will pave the way for the determination of the 3D structure of a wide range of amorphous solids, which could transform our fundamental understanding of non-crystalline materials and related phenomena.

Breaking the vitrification limitation of monatomic metals.

The question of whether all materials can solidify into the glassy form proposed by Turnbull half a century ago remains unsolved. Some of the simplest systems of monatomic metals have not been vitrified, especially the close-packed face-centred cubic metals. Here we report the vitrification of gold, which is notoriously difficult to be vitrified, and several similar close-packed face-centred cubic and hexagonal metals using a method of picosecond pulsed laser ablation in a liquid medium. The vitrification occurs through the rapid cooling during laser ablation and the inhibition of nucleation by the liquid medium. Using this method, a large number of atomic configurations, including glassy configurations, can be generated simultaneously, from which a stable glass state can be sampled. Simulations demonstrate that the favourable stability of monatomic metals stems from the strong topological frustration of icosahedra-like clusters. Our work breaks the limitation of the glass-forming ability of matter, indicating that vitrification is an intrinsic property of matter and providing a strategy for the preparation and design of metallic glasses from an atomic configuration perspective.

Observing crystal nucleation in four dimensions using atomic electron tomography.

Nucleation plays a critical role in many physical and biological phenomena that range from crystallization, melting and evaporation to the formation of clouds and the initiation of neurodegenerative diseases1-3. However, nucleation is a challenging process to study experimentally, especially in its early stages, when several atoms or molecules start to form a new phase from a parent phase. A number of experimental and computational methods have been used to investigate nucleation processes4-17, but experimental determination of the three-dimensional atomic structure and the dynamics of early-stage nuclei has been unachievable. Here we use atomic electron tomography to study early-stage nucleation in four dimensions (that is, including time) at atomic resolution. Using FePt nanoparticles as a model system, we find that early-stage nuclei are irregularly shaped, each has a core of one to a few atoms with the maximum order parameter, and the order parameter gradient points from the core to the boundary of the nucleus. We capture the structure and dynamics of the same nuclei undergoing growth, fluctuation, dissolution, merging and/or division, which are regulated by the order parameter distribution and its gradient. These experimental observations are corroborated by molecular dynamics simulations of heterogeneous and homogeneous nucleation in liquid-solid phase transitions of Pt. Our experimental and molecular dynamics results indicate that a theory beyond classical nucleation theory1,2,18 is needed to describe early-stage nucleation at the atomic scale. We anticipate that the reported approach will open the door to the study of many fundamental problems in materials science, nanoscience, condensed matter physics and chemistry, such as phase transition, atomic diffusion, grain boundary dynamics, interface motion, defect dynamics and surface reconstruction with four-dimensional atomic resolution.

Unveiling Atomic-Scaled Local Chemical Order of High-Entropy Intermetallic Catalyst for Alkyl-Substitution-Dependent Alkyne Semihydrogenation.

High-entropy intermetallic (HEI) nanocrystals, composed of multiple elements with an ordered structure, are of immense interest in heterogeneous catalysis due to their unique geometric and electronic structures and the cocktail effect. Despite tremendous efforts dedicated to regulating the metal composition and structures with advanced synthetic methodologies to improve the performance, the surface structure, and local chemical order of HEI and their correlation with activity at the atomic level remain obscure yet challenging. Herein, by determining the three-dimensional (3D) atomic structure of quinary PdFeCoNiCu (PdM) HEI using atomic-resolution electron tomography, we reveal that the local chemical order of HEI regulates the surface electronic structures, which further mediates the alkyl-substitution-dependent alkyne semihydrogenation. The 3D structures of HEI PdM nanocrystals feature an ordered (intermetallic) core enclosed by a disordered (solid-solution) shell rather than an ordered surface. The lattice mismatch between the core and shell results in apparent near-surface distortion. The chemical order of the intermetallic core increases with annealing temperature, driving the electron redistribution between Pd and M at the surface, but the surface geometrical (chemically disordered) configurations and compositions are essentially unchanged. We investigate the catalytic performance of HEI PdM with different local chemical orders toward semihydrogenation across a broad range of alkynes, finding that the electron density of surface Pd and the hindrance effect of alkyl substitutions on alkynes are two key factors regulating selective semihydrogenation. We anticipate that these findings on surface atomic structure will clarify the controversy regarding the geometric and/or electronic effects of HEI catalysts and inspire future studies on tuning local chemical order and surface engineering toward enhanced catalysts.

Supercrystal Engineering of Nanoarrows Enabled by Tailored Concavity.

Self-assembly of nanoparticles into supercrystals represents a powerful approach to create unique and complex superstructures with fascinating properties and novel functions, but the complexity in spatial configuration, and the tunability in lattice structure are still quite limited compared to the crystals formed by atoms and molecules. Herein, shallowly concave gold nanoarrows with a unique concave-convex geometry are synthesized and employed as novel building blocks for shape-directed self-assembly of a wealth of complex 3D supercrystals with unprecedented configurations. The obtained diverse superstructures including six Interlocking-type supercrystals and three Packing-type supercrystals exhibit four types of Bravais lattices (i.e., tP, oI, tI, and oF) and six types of crystallographic space groups (i.e., Pmmm, I222, Pnnm, Ibam, I4/mmm, and Fmmm), which have not been documented in the mesoscale self-assembled systems. It has been revealed that the relative yield of different supercrystal structures is mainly determined by the packing density and deformability of the supercrystals, which are closely related to the tailored concavity of the nanoparticles and is affected by the particle concentration, thus allowing for programmable self-assembly into specific supercrystals through particle shape modulation. The concavity-enabled supercrystal engineering may open a new avenue toward unconventional nanoparticle superstructures with expanded complexity, tunability, and functionality.

X-ray linear dichroic ptychography.

Biominerals such as seashells, coral skeletons, bone, and tooth enamel are optically anisotropic crystalline materials with unique nanoscale and microscale organization that translates into exceptional macroscopic mechanical properties, providing inspiration for engineering new and superior biomimetic structures. Using Seriatopora aculeata coral skeleton as a model, here, we experimentally demonstrate X-ray linear dichroic ptychography and map the c-axis orientations of the aragonite (CaCO3) crystals. Linear dichroic phase imaging at the oxygen K-edge energy shows strong polarization-dependent contrast and reveals the presence of both narrow (<35°) and wide (>35°) c-axis angular spread in the coral samples. These X-ray ptychography results are corroborated by four-dimensional (4D) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) on the same samples. Evidence of co-oriented, but disconnected, corallite subdomains indicates jagged crystal boundaries consistent with formation by amorphous nanoparticle attachment. We expect that the combination of X-ray linear dichroic ptychography and 4D STEM could be an important multimodal tool to study nano-crystallites, interfaces, nucleation, and mineral growth of optically anisotropic materials at multiple length scales.

Three-dimensional atomic packing in amorphous solids with liquid-like structure.

Liquids and solids are two fundamental states of matter. However, our understanding of their three-dimensional atomic structure is mostly based on physical models. Here we use atomic electron tomography to experimentally determine the three-dimensional atomic positions of monatomic amorphous solids, namely a Ta thin film and two Pd nanoparticles. We observe that pentagonal bipyramids are the most abundant atomic motifs in these amorphous materials. Instead of forming icosahedra, the majority of pentagonal bipyramids arrange into pentagonal bipyramid networks with medium-range order. Molecular dynamics simulations further reveal that pentagonal bipyramid networks are prevalent in monatomic metallic liquids, which rapidly grow in size and form more icosahedra during the quench from the liquid to the glass state. These results expand our understanding of the atomic structures of amorphous solids and will encourage future studies on amorphous-crystalline phase and glass transitions in non-crystalline materials with three-dimensional atomic resolution.

Deciphering chemical order/disorder and material properties at the single-atom level.

Perfect crystals are rare in nature. Real materials often contain crystal defects and chemical order/disorder such as grain boundaries, dislocations, interfaces, surface reconstructions and point defects. Such disruption in periodicity strongly affects material properties and functionality. Despite rapid development of quantitative material characterization methods, correlating three-dimensional (3D) atomic arrangements of chemical order/disorder and crystal defects with material properties remains a challenge. On a parallel front, quantum mechanics calculations such as density functional theory (DFT) have progressed from the modelling of ideal bulk systems to modelling 'real' materials with dopants, dislocations, grain boundaries and interfaces; but these calculations rely heavily on average atomic models extracted from crystallography. To improve the predictive power of first-principles calculations, there is a pressing need to use atomic coordinates of real systems beyond average crystallographic measurements. Here we determine the 3D coordinates of 6,569 iron and 16,627 platinum atoms in an iron-platinum nanoparticle, and correlate chemical order/disorder and crystal defects with material properties at the single-atom level. We identify rich structural variety with unprecedented 3D detail including atomic composition, grain boundaries, anti-phase boundaries, anti-site point defects and swap defects. We show that the experimentally measured coordinates and chemical species with 22 picometre precision can be used as direct input for DFT calculations of material properties such as atomic spin and orbital magnetic moments and local magnetocrystalline anisotropy. This work combines 3D atomic structure determination of crystal defects with DFT calculations, which is expected to advance our understanding of structure-property relationships at the fundamental level.

Selective Electrooxidation of Biomass-Derived Alcohols to Aldehydes in a Neutral Medium: Promoted Water Dissociation over a Nickel-Oxide-Supported Ruthenium Single-Atom Catalyst.

The biomass-derived alcohol oxidation reaction (BDAOR) holds great promise for sustainable production of chemicals. However, selective electrooxidation of alcohols to value-added aldehyde compounds is still challenging. Herein, we report the electrocatalytic BDAORs to selectively produce aldehydes using single-atom ruthenium on nickel oxide (Ru1 -NiO) as a catalyst in the neutral medium. For electrooxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), Ru1 -NiO exhibits a low potential of 1.283 V at 10 mA cm-2 , and an optimal 2,5-diformylfuran (DFF) selectivity of 90 %. Experimental studies reveal that the neutral electrolyte plays a critical role in achieving a high aldehyde selectivity, and the single-atom Ru boosts HMF oxidation in the neutral medium by promoting water dissociation to afford OH*. Furthermore, Ru1 -NiO can be extended to selective electrooxidation of a series of biomass-derived alcohols to corresponding aldehydes, which are conventionally difficult to obtain in the alkaline medium.

Complete dissociation and reassembly behavior as studied by using poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(glutamate sodium) and kanamycin A.

Kanamycin A, an amino modified sugar, can interact with poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(glutamate sodium) (PEG114-PGlu64) via electrostatic interactions (with PGlu) and hydrogen bonding (with PEG). The interplay of these two forces determines the assembly process and the resulting structure. In deionized water, kanamycin A and PEG114-PGlu64 form a spherical structure at [+]/[-] = 3.5. This structure dissociates instantly and completely in the presence of 30 mM NaCl. However, a new structure is reassembled in about 2 hours. A similar phenomenon is observed when the buffer pH is increased from 7.8 to 8.3. We attribute the distinct dissociation/reassembly process to the reestablishment of the balance between electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding. The dissociation/reassembly process in response to environmental changes offers a novel approach to release the loaded cargo in a controlled manner.

Local de-condensation of double-stranded DNA in oppositely charged polyelectrolyte as induced by spermidine.

How polyamines such as spermidine cooperate with histone to condense and de-condense DNA during transcription has not been clarified. In this work, using the complex of DNA and poly(L-lysine) (PLL) at +/- ratio of 0.5 as a model of nucleosome, we monitored the de-condensation of DNA in the presence of spermidine. As revealed by the results from atomic force microscopy and time-resolved laser light scattering, spermidine was able to transform the spherical complex into a core-shelled structure, with the hard core being the DNA-PLL complex and the soft shell being DNA and spermidine. The soft shell evolved into a coiled DNA conformation with time. Such a local de-condensation process should be helpful in understanding the DNA transcription and cell division process in vivo.

Peptides containing blocks of different charge densities facilitate cell uptake of oligonucleotides.

Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) are of great importance in drug delivery and gene therapy. The density and the distribution of the charges are key parameters of a polyelectrolyte, determining the structure of the complex and the kinetics of the complexation. Using peptides of precisely-controlled charge density as model molecules, we showed that the presence of weakly-charged peptides, (KGGG)5 or (KGKG)5, did not affect the complexation of highly-charged peptides (KKKK)5 with 21 bp oligonucleotides. However, peptide containing blocks of different charge densities, such as (KKKK)5-b-(KGGG)5 or (KKKK)5-b-(KGKG)5, exhibited superior performance during complexation. With a relatively uniform small size, the complex was also stable in serum. More importantly, the cellular uptake of the complex was greatly enhanced by a ratio of 40-60%, compared to that of the complex formed by uniformly-charged peptides. We attributed the improvement to the structure of the complex, in which the highly-charged blocks form the core with the oligonucleotide whilst the weakly-charged blocks dangle outside, preventing the complexes from further aggregation.

Complexation behavior of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes: Effect of charge distribution.

Complexation behavior of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes in a solution is investigated using a combination of computer simulations and experiments, focusing on the influence of polyelectrolyte charge distributions along the chains on the structure of the polyelectrolyte complexes. The simulations are performed using Monte Carlo with the replica-exchange algorithm for three model systems where each system is composed of a mixture of two types of oppositely charged model polyelectrolyte chains (EGEG)5/(KGKG)5, (EEGG)5/(KKGG)5, and (EEGG)5/(KGKG)5, in a solution including explicit solvent molecules. Among the three model systems, only the charge distributions along the chains are not identical. Thermodynamic quantities are calculated as a function of temperature (or ionic strength), and the microscopic structures of complexes are examined. It is found that the three systems have different transition temperatures, and form complexes with different sizes, structures, and densities at a given temperature. Complex microscopic structures with an alternating arrangement of one monolayer of E/K monomers and one monolayer of G monomers, with one bilayer of E and K monomers and one bilayer of G monomers, and with a mixture of monolayer and bilayer of E/K monomers in a box shape and a trilayer of G monomers inside the box are obtained for the three mixture systems, respectively. The experiments are carried out for three systems where each is composed of a mixture of two types of oppositely charged peptide chains. Each peptide chain is composed of Lysine (K) and glycine (G) or glutamate (E) and G, in solution, and the chain length and amino acid sequences, and hence the charge distribution, are precisely controlled, and all of them are identical with those for the corresponding model chain. The complexation behavior and complex structures are characterized through laser light scattering and atomic force microscopy measurements. The order of the apparent weight-averaged molar mass and the order of density of complexes observed from the three experimental systems are qualitatively in agreement with those predicted from the simulations.

Dendrimeric bowties featuring hemispheric-selective decoration of ligands for microRNA-based therapy.

Dendrimers feature a defined number of terminal groups that may bind RNA or be functionalized with bioactive molecules. These competing uses of terminal groups may create an impasse if the requisite density of ligands depletes the number of terminal groups for binding sufficient RNA, or vice versa. A novel dendrimeric platform is needed that maintains high ligand density while retaining sufficient microRNA-binding terminal groups. Here we present a dendrimeric "bowtie" consisting of one-half devoted to microRNA binding and the other half to ligand presentation. We demonstrate its suitability as a transfection agent by delivering miR-126 to human vascular endothial cells (HUVECs) via polyarginine- and RGD-modified bowties and evaluating the downstream effects on proliferation and tube formation. Our findings indicate that the bowtie elicits desired responses and may possess superior delivery properties compared to nondecorated dendrimeric materials. The bowtie system thereby provides a new design model for developing dendrimeric delivery vehicles for RNAi therapeutics.

Probing the atomically diffuse interfaces in Pd@Pt core-shell nanoparticles in three dimensions.

Deciphering the three-dimensional atomic structure of solid-solid interfaces in core-shell nanomaterials is the key to understand their catalytical, optical and electronic properties. Here, we probe the three-dimensional atomic structures of palladium-platinum core-shell nanoparticles at the single-atom level using atomic resolution electron tomography. We quantify the rich structural variety of core-shell nanoparticles with heteroepitaxy in 3D at atomic resolution. Instead of forming an atomically-sharp boundary, the core-shell interface is found to be atomically diffuse with an average thickness of 4.2 Å, irrespective of the particle's morphology or crystallographic texture. The high concentration of Pd in the diffusive interface is highly related to the free Pd atoms dissolved from the Pd seeds, which is confirmed by atomic images of Pd and Pt single atoms and sub-nanometer clusters using cryogenic electron microscopy. These results advance our understanding of core-shell structures at the fundamental level, providing potential strategies into precise nanomaterial manipulation and chemical property regulation.

A semiconductor-electrocatalyst nano interface constructed for successive photoelectrochemical water oxidation.

Photoelectrochemical water splitting has long been considered an ideal approach to producing green hydrogen by utilizing solar energy. However, the limited photocurrents and large overpotentials of the anodes seriously impede large-scale application of this technology. Here, we use an interfacial engineering strategy to construct a nanostructural photoelectrochemical catalyst by incorporating a semiconductor CdS/CdSe-MoS2 and NiFe layered double hydroxide for the oxygen evolution reaction. Impressively, the as-prepared photoelectrode requires an low potential of 1.001 V vs. reversible hydrogen electrode for a photocurrent density of 10 mA cm-2, and this is 228 mV lower than the theoretical water splitting potential (1.229 vs. reversible hydrogen electrode). Additionally, the generated current density (15 mA cm-2) of the photoelectrode at a given overpotential of 0.2 V remains at 95% after long-term testing (100 h). Operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy revealed that the formation of highly oxidized Ni species under illumination provides large photocurrent gains. This finding opens an avenue for designing high-efficiency photoelectrochemical catalysts for successive water splitting.

Transient and general synthesis of high-density and ultrasmall nanoparticles on two-dimensional porous carbon via coordinated carbothermal shock.

Carbon-supported nanoparticles are indispensable to enabling new energy technologies such as metal-air batteries and catalytic water splitting. However, achieving ultrasmall and high-density nanoparticles (optimal catalysts) faces fundamental challenges of their strong tendency toward coarsening and agglomeration. Herein, we report a general and efficient synthesis of high-density and ultrasmall nanoparticles uniformly dispersed on two-dimensional porous carbon. This is achieved through direct carbothermal shock pyrolysis of metal-ligand precursors in just ~100 ms, the fastest among reported syntheses. Our results show that the in situ metal-ligand coordination (e.g., N → Co2+) and local ordering during millisecond-scale pyrolysis play a crucial role in kinetically dominated fabrication and stabilization of high-density nanoparticles on two-dimensional porous carbon films. The as-obtained samples exhibit excellent activity and stability as bifunctional catalysts in oxygen redox reactions. Considering the huge flexibility in coordinated precursors design, diversified single and multielement nanoparticles (M = Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Cr, Mn, Ag, etc) were generally fabricated, even in systems well beyond traditional crystalline coordination chemistry. Our method allows for the transient and general synthesis of well-dispersed nanoparticles with great simplicity and versatility for various application schemes.

SiRNA delivery systems based on neutral cross-linked dendrimers.

A neutral cross-linked dendritic system is described for use of delivering small interfering RNA (siRNA) for targeted gene silencing. By replacing the terminal amines with hydrazide groups and N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) ligands, cationic polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers were transformed into neutral glycosylated carriers for siRNA delivery. Mainly owing to the pH sensitivity and the proton-absorption capability of the tertiary amines within the interior branches, these PAMAM derivatives showing neutrality under physiological conditions (pH 7.4) formed complexes with siRNA through electrostatic interactions at pH 5. Cross-linking procedures via reactions with glutaraldehyde were established, and cytocompatible cross-linked systems loaded with siRNA obtained, with the particulate properties variable with the cross-linking condition and the GalNAc level in the dendritic carrier. In vitro cellular uptake and RNAi experiments showed that the cross-linked dendritic systems with an appropriate level of GalNAc composition effectively interacted with HepG2 cells and inhibited the expression of a luciferase reporter gene. Neutral cross-linked dendritic systems provide a new paradigm for designing siRNA delivery systems with biocompatibility and targeting capability.

Nondestructive, high-resolution, chemically specific 3D nanostructure characterization using phase-sensitive EUV imaging reflectometry.

Next-generation nano- and quantum devices have increasingly complex 3D structure. As the dimensions of these devices shrink to the nanoscale, their performance is often governed by interface quality or precise chemical or dopant composition. Here, we present the first phase-sensitive extreme ultraviolet imaging reflectometer. It combines the excellent phase stability of coherent high-harmonic sources, the unique chemical sensitivity of extreme ultraviolet reflectometry, and state-of-the-art ptychography imaging algorithms. This tabletop microscope can nondestructively probe surface topography, layer thicknesses, and interface quality, as well as dopant concentrations and profiles. High-fidelity imaging was achieved by implementing variable-angle ptychographic imaging, by using total variation regularization to mitigate noise and artifacts in the reconstructed image, and by using a high-brightness, high-harmonic source with excellent intensity and wavefront stability. We validate our measurements through multiscale, multimodal imaging to show that this technique has unique advantages compared with other techniques based on electron and scanning probe microscopies.