Impairment of serine transport across the blood-brain barrier by deletion of Slc38a5 causes developmental delay and motor dysfunction.

Brain L-serine is critical for neurodevelopment and is thought to be synthesized solely from glucose. In contrast, we found that the influx of L-serine across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is essential for brain development. We identified the endothelial Slc38a5, previously thought to be a glutamine transporter, as an L-serine transporter expressed at the BBB in early postnatal life. Young Slc38a5 knockout (KO) mice exhibit developmental alterations and a decrease in brain L-serine and D-serine, without changes in serum or liver amino acids. Slc38a5-KO brains exhibit accumulation of neurotoxic deoxysphingolipids, synaptic and mitochondrial abnormalities, and decreased neurogenesis at the dentate gyrus. Slc38a5-KO pups exhibit motor impairments that are affected by the administration of L-serine at concentrations that replenish the serine pool in the brain. Our results highlight a critical role of Slc38a5 in supplying L-serine via the BBB for proper brain development.

A new type of blood-brain barrier aminoacidopathy underlies metabolic microcephaly associated with SLC1A4 mutations.

Mutations in the SLC1A4 transporter lead to neurodevelopmental impairments, spastic tetraplegia, thin corpus callosum, and microcephaly in children. SLC1A4 catalyzes obligatory amino acid exchange between neutral amino acids, but the physiopathology of SLC1A4 disease mutations and progressive microcephaly remain unclear. Here, we examined the phenotype and metabolic profile of three Slc1a4 mouse models, including a constitutive Slc1a4-KO mouse, a knock-in mouse with the major human Slc1a4 mutation (Slc1a4-K256E), and a selective knockout of Slc1a4 in brain endothelial cells (Slc1a4tie2-cre). We show that Slc1a4 is a bona fide L-serine transporter at the BBB and that acute inhibition or deletion of Slc1a4 leads to a decrease in serine influx into the brain. This results in microcephaly associated with decreased L-serine content in the brain, accumulation of atypical and cytotoxic 1-deoxysphingolipids in the brain, neurodegeneration, synaptic and mitochondrial abnormalities, and behavioral impairments. Prenatal and early postnatal oral administration of L-serine at levels that replenish the serine pool in the brain rescued the observed biochemical and behavioral changes. Administration of L-serine till the second postnatal week also normalized brain weight in Slc1a4-E256 K mice. Our observations suggest that the transport of "non-essential" amino acids from the blood through the BBB is at least as important as that of essential amino acids for brain metabolism and development. We proposed that SLC1A4 mutations cause a BBB aminoacidopathy with deficits in serine import across the BBB required for optimal brain growth and leads to a metabolic microcephaly, which may be amenable to treatment with L-serine.

ASCT1 (Slc1a4) transporter is a physiologic regulator of brain d-serine and neurodevelopment.

d-serine is a physiologic coagonist of NMDA receptors, but little is known about the regulation of its synthesis and synaptic turnover. The amino acid exchangers ASCT1 (Slc1a4) and ASCT2 (Slc1a5) are candidates for regulating d-serine levels. Using ASCT1 and ASCT2 KO mice, we report that ASCT1, rather than ASCT2, is a physiologic regulator of d-serine metabolism. ASCT1 is a major d-serine uptake system in astrocytes and can also export l-serine via heteroexchange, supplying neurons with the substrate for d-serine synthesis. ASCT1-KO mice display lower levels of brain d-serine along with higher levels of l-alanine, l-threonine, and glycine. Deletion of ASCT1 was associated with neurodevelopmental alterations including lower hippocampal and striatal volumes and changes in the expression of neurodevelopmental-relevant genes. Furthermore, ASCT1-KO mice exhibited deficits in motor function, spatial learning, and affective behavior, along with changes in the relative contributions of d-serine vs. glycine in mediating NMDA receptor activity. In vivo microdialysis demonstrated lower levels of extracellular d-serine in ASCT1-KO mice, confirming altered d-serine metabolism. These alterations are reminiscent of some of the neurodevelopmental phenotypes exhibited by patients with ASCT1 mutations. ASCT1-KO mice provide a useful model for potential therapeutic interventions aimed at correcting the metabolic impairments in patients with ASCT1 mutations.

Asc-1 Transporter Regulation of Synaptic Activity via the Tonic Release of d-Serine in the Forebrain.

d-Serine is a co-agonist of NMDA receptors (NMDARs) whose activity is potentially regulated by Asc-1 (SLC7A10), a transporter that displays high affinity for d-serine and glycine. Asc-1 operates as a facilitative transporter and as an antiporter, though the preferred direction of d-serine transport is uncertain. We developed a selective Asc-1 blocker, Lu AE00527, that blocks d-serine release mediated by all the transport modes of Asc-1 in primary cultures and neocortical slices. Furthermore, d-serine release is reduced in slices from Asc-1 knockout (KO) mice, indicating that d-serine efflux is the preferred direction of Asc-1. The selectivity of Lu AE00527 is assured by the lack of effect on slices from Asc-1-KO mice, and the lack of interaction with the co-agonist site of NMDARs. Moreover, in vivo injection of Lu AE00527 in P-glycoprotein-deficient mice recapitulates a hyperekplexia-like phenotype similar to that in Asc-1-KO mice. In slices, Lu AE00527 decreases the long-term potentiation at the Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses, but does not affect the long-term depression. Lu AE00527 blocks NMDAR synaptic potentials when typical Asc-1 extracellular substrates are present, but it does not affect AMPAR transmission. Our data demonstrate that Asc-1 mediates tonic co-agonist release, which is required for optimal NMDAR activation and synaptic plasticity.

The alanine-serine-cysteine-1 (Asc-1) transporter controls glycine levels in the brain and is required for glycinergic inhibitory transmission.

Asc-1 (SLC7A10) is an amino acid transporter whose deletion causes neurological abnormalities and early postnatal death in mice. Using metabolomics and behavioral and electrophysiological methods, we demonstrate that Asc-1 knockout mice display a marked decrease in glycine levels in the brain and spinal cord along with impairment of glycinergic inhibitory transmission, and a hyperekplexia-like phenotype that is rescued by replenishing brain glycine. Asc-1 works as a glycine and L-serine transporter, and its transport activity is required for the subsequent conversion of L-serine into glycine in vivo. Asc-1 is a novel regulator of glycine metabolism and a candidate for hyperekplexia disorders.

Methylphenidate and environmental enrichment ameliorate the deleterious effects of prenatal stress on attention functioning.

Either pre- or post-natal environmental factors seem to play a key role in brain and behavioral development and to exert long-term effects. Increasing evidence suggests that exposure to prenatal stress (PS) leads to motor and learning deficits and elevated anxiety, while enriched environment (EE) shows protective effects. The dopaminergic system is also sensitive to environmental life circumstances and affects attention functioning, which serves as the preliminary gate to cognitive processes. However, the effects of methylphenidate (MPH) on the dopaminergic system and attentional functioning, in the context of these life experiences, remain unclear. Therefore, we aimed to examine the effects of EE or PS on distinct types of attention, along with possible effects of MPH exposure. We found that PS impaired selective attention as well as partial sustained attention, while EE had beneficial effects. Both EE and MPH ameliorated the deleterious effects of PS on attention functioning. Considering the possible psychostimulant effect of MPH, we examined both anxiety-like behavior as well as motor learning. We found that PS had a clear anxiogenic effect, whereas EE had an anxiolytic effect. Nevertheless, the treatment with both MPH and/or EE recovered the deleterious effects of PS. In the motor-learning task, the PS group showed superior performance while MPH led to impaired motor learning. Performance decrements were prevented in both the PS + MPH and EE + MPH groups. This study provides evidence that peripubertal exposure to EE (by providing enhanced sensory, motor, and social opportunities) or MPH treatments might be an optional therapeutic intervention in preventing the PS long-term adverse consequences.

Reversible modulations of neuronal plasticity by VEGF.

Neurons, astrocytes, and blood vessels are organized in functional "neurovascular units" in which the vasculature can impact neuronal activity and, in turn, dynamically adjust to its change. Here we explored different mechanisms by which VEGF, a pleiotropic factor known to possess multiple activities vis-à-vis blood vessels and neurons, may affect adult neurogenesis and cognition. Conditional transgenic systems were used to reversibly overexpress VEGF or block endogenous VEGF in the hippocampus of adult mice. Importantly, this was done in settings that allowed the uncoupling of VEGF-promoted angiogenesis, neurogenesis, and memory. VEGF overexpression was found to augment all three processes, whereas VEGF blockade impaired memory without reducing hippocampal perfusion or neurogenesis. Pertinent to the general debate regarding the relative contribution of adult neurogenesis to memory, we found that memory gain by VEGF overexpression and memory impairment by VEGF blockade were already evident at early time points at which newly added neurons could not yet have become functional. Surprisingly, VEGF induction markedly increased in vivo long-term potentiation (LTP) responses in the dentate gyrus, and VEGF blockade completely abrogated LTP. Switching off ectopic VEGF production resulted in a return to a normal memory and LTP, indicating that ongoing VEGF is required to maintain increased plasticity. In summary, the study not only uncovered a surprising role for VEGF in neuronal plasticity, but also suggests that improved memory by VEGF is primarily a result of increasing plasticity of mature neurons rather than the contribution of newly added hippocampal neurons.

Differential Impact of Work Overload on Physicians' Attention: A Comparison Between Residential Fields.

OBJECTIVES: Medical errors cause tens of thousands of deaths annually and have a major impact on quality of care and management; however, it receives scant research and public awareness. This study aimed to examine the relation between workload-induced lack of sleep and attention failure, as indications for medical errors risk, among young residents. METHODS: We performed an evaluation of young physicians by the Test of Variables of Attention, before and after a 24-hour shift. RESULTS: Workload was manifested by 13% overall attention impairment at baseline, which increased to 34% with deficiencies below the normal range after the shift. Attention measures differed between physicians of each residential field at baseline, but to greater extent after the shift. CONCLUSIONS: Traditional working schedule is strongly associated with attention failure. Based on the literature linking attention failures to medical errors, we suggest a regulatory change regarding residents' shift duration to decrease preventable errors.

Exposure to static magnetic field facilitates selective attention and neuroplasticity in rats.

Static magnetic fields (SMF) have neuroprotective and behavioral effects in rats, however, little is known about the effects of SMF on cognition, motor function and the underlying neurochemical mechanisms. In this study, we focused on the effects of short-term (5-10d) and long-term (13-38d) SMF exposure on selective attention and motor coordination of rats, as well as associated alterations in expression level of neuroplasticity-related structural proteins and cryptochrome (CRY1) protein in the cortex, striatum and ventral midbrain. The results showed that 6d SMF exposure significantly enhanced selective attention without affecting locomotor activity in open field. All SMF exposures non-significantly enhanced motor coordination (Rotarod test). Neurochemical analysis demonstrated that 5d SMF exposure increased the expression of cortical and striatal CRY1 and synapsin-1 (SYN1), striatal total synapsins (SYN), and synaptophysin (SYP), growth associated protein-43 (GAP43) and post-synaptic density protein-95 (PSD95) in the ventral midbrain. Exposure to SMF for 14d increased PSD95 level in the ventral midbrain while longer SMF exposure elevated the levels of PSD95 in the cortex, SYN and SYN1 in all the examined brain areas. The increased expression of cortical and striatal CRY1 and SYN1 correlated with the short-lasting effect of SMF on improving selective attention. Collectively, SMF's effect on selective attention attenuated following longer exposure to SMF whereas its effects on neuroplasticity-related structural biomarkers were time- and brain area-dependent, with some protein levels increasing with longer time exposure. These findings suggest a potential use of SMF for treatment of neurological diseases in which selective attention or neuroplasticity is impaired.

Dog training alleviates PTSD symptomatology by emotional and attentional regulation.

Background: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms include re-experiencing, avoidance, hyperarousal, and cognitive deficits, reflecting both emotional and cognitive dysregulation. In recent years, non-pharmacological approaches and specifically animal-assisted therapy have been shown to be beneficial for a variety of disorders such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and PTSD. However, little is mentioned in the literature about the reciprocal effects of the animal-human interaction. Objective: To evaluate the effects of a one-year dog training programme on PTSD symptomatology in youngsters with PTSD and on dogs' behaviour. Methods: Fifty-three adolescents, previously exposed to interpersonal trauma, were clinically diagnosed with PTSD and assigned to a dog-training programme group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 23) that engaged in other training programmes (e.g. cooking, hairstyling, etc.). Both groups were evaluated at baseline and following 12-months by The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 in Children and Adolescents (CAPS-CA-5) and Beck-Depression Inventory (BDI). Additionally, we physiologically measured both emotional and attention dysregulation. Results: Post-12-months training, a significant alleviation of PTSD symptomatology accompanied by lower depression severity was observed in the dog-training group, compared with a insignificant recovery in the control group. Furthermore, improved emotional and attentional regulation was observed in the dog-training group. Measuring the dogs' behaviour revealed increased anxiety and decreased selective attention performance, which was inversely correlated with the beneficial effects observed in the dog-training programme group. Conclusions: Our findings emphasize the role of emotional and attentional regulations on the dog-handler interface, as evidence-based support for the beneficial effects of the dog-training programme, as either a non-pharmacological intervention or as complementary to anti-depressants treatment of PTSD. Though pharmacological treatments increase the patients' well-being by treating certain PTSD symptoms, our suggested dog-training programme seems to influence the PTSD diagnostic status, thus may be implemented in civilians and veterans with PTSD.

Antecedentes: Los síntomas de trastorno de estrés postraumático (TEPT) incluyen re-experimentación, evitación, hiperalerta y déficits cognitivos, reflejando desregulación tanto emocional como cognitiva. En los últimos años, se demostró que los enfoques no farmacológicos y específicamente la terapia asistida por animales son beneficiosos para una variedad de trastornos como el Trastorno por Déficit Atencional e Hiperactividad, el Trastorno del Espectro Autista y el TEPT. Sin embargo, poco se menciona en la literatura acerca de los efectos recíprocos de la interacción animal-humano.Objetivo: Evaluar los efectos de un programa de adiestramiento canino de un año en la sintomatología de TEPT en los jóvenes con TEPT y en el comportamiento de los perros.Métodos: Cincuenta y tres adolescentes, previamente expuestos a trauma interpersonal, fueron diagnosticados clínicamente con TEPT y asignados a un grupo de programa de adiestramiento canino (n = 30) y a un grupo control (n = 23) que participaron en otros programas de adiestramiento (ej., cocinar, peluquería, etc). Ambos grupos fueron evaluados al inicio y después de 12 meses mediante la Escala de TEPT administrada por el Clínico del DSM-5 en niños y adolescentes (CAPS-CA-5 por sus siglas en inglés) y el Inventario de Depresión de Beck (BDI). Adicionalmente, medimos fisiológicamente la desregulación emocional y de la atención.Resultados: Después del entrenamiento de 12 meses, se observó un alivio significativo de la sintomatología de TEPT junto con una disminución de la severidad de la depresión en el grupo de adiestramiento canino, comparado con una recuperación insignificante en el grupo control. Además, se observó una mejoría en la regulación emocional y de la atención en el grupo de adiestramiento canino. La medición del comportamiento de los perros reveló un aumento de la ansiedad y disminución del rendimiento de la atención selectiva, que se correlacionó inversamente con los efectos beneficiosos observados en el grupo del programa de adiestramiento canino.Conclusiones: Nuestros hallazgos enfatizan el rol de la regulación emocional y de atención en la interfaz del entrenador de perros, como soporte basado en la evidencia para los efectos beneficiosos del programa de adiestramiento canino, tanto como tratamiento no farmacológico como complementario al tratamiento antidepresivo del TEPT. Aunque los tratamientos farmacológicos fomentan el bienestar de los pacientes al tratar ciertos síntomas del TEPT, nuestro programa de adiestramiento canino sugerido parece influir en el estado diagnóstico de TEPT, por lo que puede implementarse en civiles y veteranos con TEPT.

Attention Dysregulation in Breast Cancer Patients Following a Complementary Alternative Treatment Routine: A Double-Blind Randomized Trial.

INTRODUCTION: Breast cancer patients and survivors frequently report fatigue, emotional, and cognitive disturbances, which reduce performance at all levels of occupation and make life quality issues a considerable clinical concern. The aim of this study is to evaluate attention and emotion regulation across radiotherapy period and the possible effects of complementary alternative medicine (CAM). METHODS: Fifty-seven patients with unilateral breast cancer underwent surgery and systemic chemotherapy before participating in this double-blind randomized study. Two thirds were given CAM (n = 38) while the rest received placebo (carrier only, n = 19). Patients' attention and anxiety were physiologically tested at baseline, 2 and 4 weeks during the radiation period as well as 1-month after the end of radiation session. RESULTS: Both groups showed similar levels of anxiety with no significant differences at baseline nor post-radiotherapy. Long-term significant recovery of attention performance was observed in the CAM patients, accompanied by a similar tendency in anxiety level, measured by the eye-blink probability. CONCLUSIONS: This study physiologically validates the attention impairment reported among breast cancer survivors; also, it depicted a beneficial late-effect of a routine CAM on attention dysregulation. The suggested non-invasive physiological measures can physiologically monitor patients' psychological and cognitive well-being as well as evaluate the beneficial effect of CAM in breast cancer patients by assessing their coping ability to support the treatment plan. Thus, the results have potential clinical implications on patients' and survivors' quality of life. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NIH, NCT02890316. Registered July 2016, http://www.ClinicalTrials.gov.

Developmental effects of environmental enrichment on selective and auditory sustained attention.

Environmental enrichment (EE) has been used as a positive manipulation in different disease models. However, there is conflicting evidence reported in the literature about the effects of EE. Additionally, the time period that would be most beneficial in implementing environmental enrichment as an intervention is not clear. Our study aimed to systematically compare the prenatal, juvenile, mid-adolescence, and adulthood developmental trajectory to further the understanding of enriched environment's effects on selective and auditory sustained attention, corresponding to behavioral (conceived) and physiological-reflexive (non-conceived) measures. Rats were exposed for 21 days to enriched environment during various developmental periods and compared to age-matched controls. All groups were tested for long-term effects (at postnatal day 120 and onward) on selective and sustained attention. We found that the exposure to enriched environment during mid-adolescence has yielded the most significant and long-term pattern of effects, including selective and auditory sustained attention performance, increased foraging-like behavior and a significant decrease in corticosterone level. Similarly, the exposure to EE at juvenile period improved selective attention, increased foraging-like behavior, and reduced anxiety levels as reflected in the open field as well as in low corticosterone levels. These results specify a crucial period along the developmental trajectory for applying environmental enrichment. Mid-adolescence is suggested, in future basic and translational studies, as the sensitive time period that induces the most beneficial and long-term effects of EE on attention. The current findings suggest that the exposure to EE during mid-adolescence should be further considered and studied as behavioral alternative intervention, or as adjuvant behavioral therapy, aimed to decrease the probability to develop ADHD in post-adolescence period. This suggestion is highly relevant due to the debate regarding the pros and cons of screens usage (e.g. Facebook, online games, etc.) during early life that decreases environmental enrichment, especially, direct social interaction.

A probabilistic model of startle response reveals opposite effects of acute versus chronic Methylphenidate treatment.

BACKGROUND: The startle response is considered as the major physio-behavioral indication of anxiety in health and disease conditions. However, due to different protocols of stimulation and measurement, the magnitude as well as the appearance of the startle response is inconsistent. NEW METHOD: We postulate that the startle probability and not merely the amplitude may bare information that will form a consistent physiological measure of anxiety. RESULTS: To examine the proof-of-concept of our suggested probability model, we evaluated the effects of acute (single) versus chronic (14 days) MPH administration on both startle amplitude and probability. We found that both acute and chronic MPH administration has yielded similar effects on startle amplitude. However, acute MPH increased the startle's probability while chronic MPH decreased it. Next, we evaluated the effects of acute versus chronic stress on the startle's parameters and found a complementary effect. Explicitly, acute stress increased the startle's probability while chronic stress increased the startle amplitude. In contrast, enriched environment had no significant effects. Finally, to further validate the probability measure, we show that Midazolam had significant anxiolytic effects. In the second part, we investigated the acoustic startle response parameters (e.g. background noise and pulse duration), to better understand the interplay between these parameters and the startle amplitude versus probability. CONCLUSIONS: We show that the probabilistic element of the startle response does not only point to deeper physiologic relationships but may also serve as "hidden variables" congruent but not entirely identical to the commonly researched amplitude of the startle response.

Psychiatrists' attitude towards the use of clozapine in the treatment of refractory schizophrenia: A nationwide survey.

OBJECTIVES: Clozapine is the most effective treatment for refractory schizophrenia, yet it remains underused in clinical practice. The current study examined the awareness, familiarity and attitude of a nationwide sample of Israeli psychiatrists regarding the use of clozapine. METHODS: Data were collected using questionnaires, completed by 295 psychiatrists. Participants were asked to score questions regarding clozapine procedures; familiarity with guidelines, drug properties, prescription and attitude towards specialized clozapine resources. RESULTS: About half (53.3%) of the psychiatrists reported initiating treatment with clozapine according to the guidelines, whereas 33% reported that they administered clozapine only after three or more unsuccessful antipsychotic treatments. Surprisingly, availability of specialized resources for clozapine treatment (such as clozapine clinics) was associated with delayed initiation of clozapine treatment, and a lower rate of clozapine administration. Barriers to clozapine use included concerns about patient adherence, side effects and partial compliance with the required blood monitoring. CONCLUSIONS: Delaying or avoiding clozapine treatment to potentially eligible patients, despite familiarity with the drug efficacy and treatment guidelines, is a major mental health concern. However, executive allocation of resources to support the use of clozapine may be ineffective in promoting clozapine use.

Altered Volatile Organic Compound Profile in Transgenic Rats Bearing A53T Mutation of Human α-Synuclein: Comparison with Dopaminergic and Serotonergic Denervation.

Early diagnosis of Parkinson's disease (PD) is of great importance due its progressive phenotype. Neuroprotective drugs could potentially slow down disease progression if used at early stages. Previously, we have reported an altered content of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the breath of rats following a 50% reduction in striatal dopamine (DA) content induced by 6-hydroxydopamine. We now report on the difference in the breath-print and content of VOCs between rats with mild and severe lesions of DA neurons, serotonergic neuronal lesions, and transgenic (Tg) rats carrying the PD-producing A53T mutation of the SNCA (α-synuclein) gene. The Tg rats had an increased content of 3-octen-1-ol and 4-chloro-3-methyl phenol in blood, while in brain tissue, hexanal, hexanol, and 2,3-octanedione were present in controls but absent in Tg rats. Levels of 1-heptyl-2-methyl cyclopropane were increased in brain tissue of Tg rats. The data confirm the potential of breath analysis for detection of human idiosyncratic as well as autosomal dominant PD.

The involvement of cannabinoids and mTOR in the reconsolidation of an emotional memory in the hippocampal-amygdala-insular circuit.

Memory reconsolidation is the process in which reactivated long-term memory becomes transiently sensitive to amnesic agents. We evaluated the ability of post reactivation administration of the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin, separately and in combination with the cannabinoid CB1/2 receptor agonist WIN55,212-2 (WIN), given systemically or specifically into the hippocampal CA1 area, basolateral amygdala (BLA) or insular cortex (IC), to reduce inhibitory avoidance fear in rats. Systemic administration of rapamycin after reactivation of fear memory impaired reconsolidation and facilitated extinction. A combined treatment with WIN and rapamycin resulted in similar effects. WIN injected systemically facilitated extinction, with no effect on reconsolidation. WIN alone and with rapamycin also decreased anxiety-like behavior. Further, when spontaneous recovery was tested, the WIN+rapamycin group did not demonstrate recovery of fear which can occur spontaneously after the passage of time. Rapamycin and WIN had differential effects on reconsolidation and extinction when microinjected into the CA1, BLA and IC. Furthermore, exposure to shock increased p70s6K activation in the BLA, indicating activation by mTOR. Treatment with rapamycin, WIN or WIN+rapamycin decreased activation and there was a strong positive correlation between fear retrieval and p70s6K activation in the BLA, suggesting that enhanced fear retrieval is associated with enhanced p70s6K activation. Taken together, the results suggest that rapamycin or a combined treatment that involves blocking mTOR and activating cannabinoids may be a promising pharmacological approach for the attenuation of reactivated emotional memories, and thus, it could represent a potential treatment strategy for disorders associated with traumatic memories.

Evidence for social cooperation in rodents by automated maze.

Social cooperation is defined as a joint action for mutual benefit that depends on the individual and the counterparts' behaviors. To gain valid evidence for social cooperation behavior we conducted a series of experiments in our suggested fully automated non-conditioned maze and depicted three major findings: (i) During 18 days of training the rats showed a progressive social learning curve as well as latent social learning; (ii) Examining the perceptual communication between the cooperating partners, we found a correlation between the available perceptual modalities and the social cooperation performance; and (iii) Investigating contextual learning as a competing process to the social cooperation, we found that additional contextual cues impaired the social cooperation performance. In conclusion, our suggested automated cooperation maze is designed to further our understanding of social cooperation under normal conditions, such as decision-making, and to examine the neural basis of social cooperation. A variety of neuropsychiatric disorders are characterized by disruptions in social behavior and social cognition, including depression, autism spectrum disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and schizophrenia. Thus, on the pathological end, our maze for social cooperation evaluation can contribute significantly to the investigation of a wide range of social cooperation impairments in a rodent model.

Mapping the developmental trajectory of stress effects: pubescence as the risk window.

The exposure to stress at different developmental time points has long been postulated to have a crucial impact on various brain structures involved in mental disorders. The long-term specific effects seem to emerge as a function of timing and duration of the exposure to stress, as well as the characteristics of the stressor. Previous studies have addressed this issue with an effort to describe a single "hyper-sensitive" time point, and have led to disagreement on a particular sensitive period for stress exposure. The primary aim of our study was to investigate the hypothesis that indeed there is a developmental stress risk window in male Wistar rats. We conducted a systematic mapping of the long-term effects of an acute stress protocol, applied both prenatal (gestational days 14-16) and postnatal (days 9-151), overall at 11 different time-points during development. Stress protocol consists of 3 days of either maternal separation (for rats at postnatal days 9-19) or exposure to the stressors forced swim, elevated plus maze and restraint (for both dams and males at postnatal days 24-151). Consequences in adulthood were measured by investigating the animals' behavior in both the open field and startle box, together with the physiological measure of corticosterone. We found both behaviorally and physiologically that the pubescence time points are the most vulnerable to stress compared to all other tested time points along the developmental trajectory. Carefully considering the comparison between rat and human age, our findings may imply the importance of childhood-to-adulthood transition, as a sensitive time-point which may exacerbate a predisposition for the development of stress-induced psychopathologies.