Loss of olfactory function and nutritional status in vital older adults and geriatric patients.

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the association of olfactory function and nutritional status in vital older adults and geriatric patients. Three hundred forty-five vital (mean age 67.1 years) and 138 geriatric older adults (mean age 80.9 years) were included. Nutritional status was assessed using the mini nutritional assessment-short form. The Sniffin' Sticks was used to measure olfactory function. Eleven percentage of the vital older adults were at risk of malnutrition, whereas 60% of the geriatric participants were malnourished or at risk. Only 2% of the vital older adults were anosmic, compared with 46% of the geriatric participants. Linear regression demonstrated a significant association (P = 0.015) between olfactory function and nutritional status in the geriatric subjects. However, this association became insignificant after adjustment for confounders. Both crude and adjusted analysis in the vital older adults did not show a significant association. The results indicate that, in both groups of elderly, there is no direct relation between olfactory function and nutritional status. We suggest that a decline in olfactory function may still be considered as one of the risk-factors for malnutrition in geriatric patients-once co-occurring with other mental and/or physical problems that are more likely to occur in those patients experience.

Associations between vertebral fractures, increased thoracic kyphosis, a flexed posture and falls in older adults: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Vertebral fractures, an increased thoracic kyphosis and a flexed posture are associated with falls. However, this was not confirmed in prospective studies. We performed a prospective cohort study to investigate the association between vertebral fractures, increased thoracic kyphosis and/or flexed posture with future fall incidents in older adults within the next year. METHODS: Patients were recruited at a geriatric outpatient clinic. Vertebral fractures were evaluated on lateral radiographs of the spine with the semi-quantitative method of Genant; the degree of thoracic kyphosis was assessed with the Cobb angle. The occiput-to-wall distance was used to determine a flexed posture. Self-reported falls were prospectively registered by monthly phone contact for the duration of 12 months. RESULTS: Fifty-one older adults were included; mean age was 79 years (SD = 4.8). An increased thoracic kyphosis was independently associated with future falls (OR 2.13; 95% CI 1.10-4.51). Prevalent vertebral fractures had a trend towards significancy (OR 3.67; 95% CI 0.85-15.9). A flexed posture was not significantly associated with future falls. CONCLUSION: Older adults with an increased thoracic kyphosis are more likely to fall within the next year. We suggest clinical attention for underlying causes. Because patients with increased thoracic curvature of the spine might have underlying osteoporotic vertebral fractures, clinicians should be aware of the risk of a new fracture.

Dutch family physicians' awareness of cognitive impairment among the elderly.

BACKGROUND: Dementia is often not formally diagnosed in primary care. To what extent this is due to family physicians' (FPs) watchful waiting, reluctance to diagnose or to their unawareness of the presence of cognitive impairment is unclear. The objective of this study was to assess FPs' awareness of cognitive impairment by comparing their evaluation of the absence or presence of cognitive impairment in older patients without an established diagnosis of dementia, with a reference test of cognitive functioning. In addition, we assessed which patient characteristics were associated with con- and discordance between FPs' evaluation of cognition and results of the reference test. METHODS: The design was a nested diagnostic study. FPs (n = 29) of 15 primary care practices classified the cognitive status of all their patients ≥ 65 years of age (n = 7865) into four categories, based on recollection and medical records. All patients categorized as 'possible cognitive impairment or dementia' and a sample of patients categorized as 'no signs of cognitive impairment' randomly selected to match age and gender were offered to receive a reference test of cognitive function (the CAMCOG) to verify the FPs' label. This reference test could yield three outcomes: no cognitive impairment, amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) or dementia. Reference test results were weighted back to the original samples to provide estimates for the correct categorization of elderly as 'possible cognitive impairment or dementia' (positive predictive value [PPV]) and 'no signs of cognitive impairment' (negative predictive value [NPV]). Cognitive functioning was not assessed for patients evaluated by FPs as 'probable dementia' and 'unknown or no recent contact'. Characteristics associated with the con- or discordance of the FPs' classification and the reference test were assessed using logistic regression. RESULTS: Complete reference test results were obtained from 318 elderly. FPs labeled 8.3 % of elderly 'possible cognitive impairment or dementia'. The PPV of this label for a CAMCOG score suggestive of dementia or aMCI was 47.1 % (95 %-confidence interval: 43.5 - 62.4 %). FPs labeled 83.7 % 'no signs of cognitive impairment'. The 1-NPV of this label for a CAMCOG score suggestive of dementia or aMCI was 12.5 % (95 %-CI 8.2 - 16.8 %). FPs labeled 3.6 % as 'probable dementia' and 4.5 % as 'unknown or no recent contact'. The odds that FPs' suspicion of cognitive impairment were confirmed by the CAMCOG were higher if persons were ADL dependent (OR 2.24 [95 %-CI 1.16 - 4.35]). The odds of FPs being unaware of the presence of cognitive impairment were higher in the older elderly (OR 1.15 [95 %-CI 1.09 - 1.23] per year). CONCLUSION: Evaluation of FPs' classification of the global cognitive function of elderly without a firm diagnosis of dementia showed both over- and unawareness of the presence of cognitive impairment. FPs were more often unaware of cognitive impairment in the older elderly.

Specifying ICD9, ICPC and ATC codes for the STOPP/START criteria: a multidisciplinary consensus panel.

BACKGROUND: the STOPP/START criteria are a promising framework to increase appropriate prescribing in the elderly in clinical practice. However, the current definitions of the STOPP/START criteria are rather non-specific, allowing undesirable variations in interpretation and thus application. The aim of this study was to design specifications of the STOPP/START criteria into international disease and medication codes to facilitate computerised extraction from medical records and databases. METHODS: a three round consensus procedure with a multidisciplinary expert panel was organised to prepare, judge and agree on the design of the STOPP/START criteria specifications in corresponding international disease codes (ICD9 and ICPC) and medication codes (ATC). RESULTS: after two rounds consensus was reached for 74% of the STOPP criteria and for 73% of the START criteria. After three rounds full consensus was reached resulting in a specification of 61 out of 62 STOPP criteria and 26 START criteria with their corresponding codes. One criterion could not be specified and for some criteria corresponding disease codes were lacking or imperfect. CONCLUSION: this study showed the necessity of a consensus procedure as even experts frequently differed on how to specify the STOPP/START criteria. This specification enables next steps such as prognostic validation of these criteria on adverse outcomes and studying the impact of improving appropriate prescribing in the elderly.

Potentially Inappropriate Medication in Older Persons With Dementia: Does a Migration Background Matter?

OBJECTIVES: Previous research in the general population shows more potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) among persons with a migration background compared with persons without a migration background. This study investigated the association between non-Western (nw) migration background (MB) and dementia-specific PIMs in older adults with dementia in the Netherlands. DESIGN: Cohort study using routinely recorded electronic health records and administrative data. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Electronic health record data of general practitioners from the NIVEL-Primary Care Database, were linked to registries managed by Statistics Netherlands (2013-2014). A total of 9055 community-dwelling older adults with dementia were included, among whom 294 persons had an nw-MB from Africa, South America, or Asia, based on their country of birth. METHODS: We determined the presence of dementia-specific PIM prescriptions and compared this between persons with an nw-MB and without an MB, using logistic regression analysis adjusted for follow-up time, age, registered sex, and total number of prescriptions. Interaction effects of potentially relevant covariates were tested. The 3 largest nw-MB groups in the Netherlands were analyzed separately. RESULTS: Dementia-specific PIMs were less frequently prescribed to persons with an nw-MB compared to persons without an MB with a dementia diagnosis [30.6% vs 34.4%, odds ratio (OR) 0.71, 95% CI 0.54-0.92], with especially less often a benzodiazepine prescription in the group with an nw-MB, compared to persons without an MB (15.0% vs 19.3%, OR 0.61, 95% CI 0.43-0.84). Dementia duration, living alone, household income, and degree of urbanization did not influence the associations. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Among older adults with dementia in the Netherlands, persons with an nw-MB had less often a dementia-specific PIM prescription compared to persons without an MB. Whether this difference is a reflection of better quality of care, higher professional uncertainty, or less recognition of (mental) health problems in persons with an nw-MB and dementia, needs further investigation.

Why do geriatric outpatients have so many moderate and severe vertebral fractures? Exploring prevalence and risk factors.

OBJECTIVES: to determine the prevalence of vertebral fractures and their risk factors in geriatric patients. DESIGN: prospective cohort study. SETTING: teaching hospital in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. SUBJECTS: three hundred and three geriatric patients, who had their first visit at a diagnostic day hospital between April and August 2007. MEASUREMENTS: lateral X-rays of the lumbar spine and chest were performed; vertebral fractures were scored according to the semi-quantitative method of Genant by trained observers and compared with the official report of radiologists. Co-morbidity, reported falls, mobility and cognitive function were scored. RESULTS: vertebral fractures were observed in 51% (156/303) of geriatric patients. Sixty-nine per cent (107/156) of these fractures were moderate to severe. In 21% (33/156) of the patients with a fracture, vertebral fractures were diagnosed on the lumbar spine X-ray alone. Patients with vertebral fractures had more previous non-vertebral fractures (odds ratio: 2.40 95% CI: 1.40-4.10), had lower serum albumin levels (OR: 0.92 95% CI: 0.87-0.97) and more current prednisone use (OR: 8.94 95% CI: 1.12-71.45). Co-morbidity and cognitive decline were not identified as risk factors. Radiologists reported vertebral fractures in 53% (82/156) of the cases. CONCLUSION: this study showed a very high prevalence of vertebral fractures in geriatric patients; particularly the high prevalence of moderate and severe fractures is remarkable. Because of this high prevalence, the routinely performed lateral X-ray of the chest should be used to look for vertebral fractures. An additional X-ray of the lumbar spine might be useful in patients without vertebral fractures on the chest X-ray.

Discrepancies in reported drug use in geriatric outpatients: relevance to adverse events and drug-drug interactions.

BACKGROUND: Increased age is associated with polypharmacy. Polypharmacy is a risk factor for severe adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and is associated with an increased risk of mortality. OBJECTIVES: The main goal of the current study was to describe the frequency and relevancy of discrepancies in drug use in Dutch geriatric outpatients as reported by the patients and their caregivers, documented by the referring general practitioner (GP), and registered by the public pharmacy. The frequency of medication discrepancy adverse patient events (MDAPEs) was also recorded. In addition, possible contributing factors-such as increasing age, cognitive status and depressive symptoms, the number of medications used, the number of physicians visited by the patient, and the presence of a caregiver to supervise medication use-were studied. METHODS: This was a prospective descriptive study conducted at the geriatric outpatient clinic of a teaching hospital. Between January 1 and May 1, 2005, consecutive patients were included if they were aged >65 years, reported use of > or =1 medication, and if they could understand the goals and consequences of participating in the study. The medications described by geriatric patients and their caregivers were compared with the drugs listed by their GP. The pharmacies of the referred patients were asked to send a description of the drugs distributed in the 6 months preceding the patient's visit to the geriatric outpatient clinic. The classification of ADRs and undertreatment as clinically relevant was done by study investigators who were blinded for the presence of discrepancy. RESULTS: A total of 120 outpatients were included. The mean (SD) age of the study patients was 82.3 (6.8) years; 71.7% were women. Of the 120 patients, 113 patients (94.2%) reported taking >1 drug and 88 (73.3%) were prescribed > or =4 drugs. At least 1 discrepancy between the medication lists of the patients, GP, or pharmacy was present in 104 of the 120 patients (86.7%). In 90 patients (75.0%), there was > or =1 discrepancy between the medication reported by the patient and the GP. Patients with > or =1 discrepancy reported taking a higher mean number of drugs and had more prescribing physicians in addition to their GP. Twenty-nine patients (24.2%) experienced an MDAPE involving the use of drugs the GP had not correctly described in the letter of referral. The pharmacy was unaware of the use of medication involved in an MDAPE in 2 patients. CONCLUSIONS: Geriatricians should assume that the medication lists supplied by GPs are incomplete or incorrect, and be aware that in approximately 25% of patients, symptoms may be caused by medication use inaccurately described in the referral. Reports by the community pharmacy may supply valuable additional information. Because there are also discrepancies between patients and pharmacies, medication use from a database-with data from prescribing physicians and pharmacy systems-will still have to be confirmed by the patient.

Conversion of STOPP/START version 2 into coded algorithms for software implementation: A multidisciplinary consensus procedure.

BACKGROUND: The rapid digitalization of medical practice has attracted growing interest in developing software applications for clinical guidelines and explicit screening tools to detect potentially inappropriate prescribing, such as STOPP/START criteria. The aim of the current study was to develop and provide logically unambiguous algorithms of STOPP/START criteria version 2, encoded with international disease and medication classification codes, to facilitate the development of software applications for multiple purposes. METHODS: A four round multidisciplinary consensus and validation procedure was conducted to develop implementable coded algorithms for software applications of STOPP/START criteria version 2, based on ICD, ICPC, LOINC and ATC classification databases. RESULTS: Consensus was reached for all 34 START criteria and 76 out of 80 STOPP criteria. The resulting 110 algorithms, modeled as inference rules in decision tables, are provided as supplementary data. CONCLUSION: This is the first study providing implementable algorithms for software applications based on STOPP/START version 2, validated in a computer decision support system. These algorithms could serve as a template for applying STOPP/START criteria version 2 to any software application, allowing for adaptations of the included ICD, ICPC and ATC codes and changing the cut-off levels for laboratory measurements to match local guidelines or clinical expertise.

Drug-drug interactions in a geriatric outpatient cohort: prevalence and relevance.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of drug-drug interactions (DDIs) in a geriatric population may be high because of polypharmacy. However, wide variance in the clinical relevance of these interactions has been shown. OBJECTIVES: To explore whether adverse drug reactions (ADRs) as a result of DDIs can be identified by clinical evaluation, to describe the prevalence of ADRs and diminished drug effectiveness as a result of DDIs and to verify whether the top ten most frequent potential DDIs known to public pharmacies are of primary importance in geriatric outpatients in the Netherlands. METHOD: All adverse events classified by the Naranjo algorithm as being a possible ADR and drug combinations resulting in diminished drug effectiveness were identified prospectively in 807 geriatric outpatients (mean age 81 years) at their first visit. The setting was a diagnostic day clinic. The Medication Appropriateness Index (MAI) and Beers criteria were used to evaluate drug use and identify possible DDIs. The ten most frequent potential interactions, according to a 1997 national database of public pharmacies ('Top Ten') in the Netherlands, and possible adverse events as a result of other interactions, were described. The effects of changes in medication regimen were recorded by checking the medical records. RESULTS: In 300 patients (44.5% of the 674 patients taking more than one drug), 398 potential DDIs were identified. In 172 (25.5%) of patients taking more than one drug, drug combinations were identified that were responsible for at least one ADR or which possibly resulted in reduced effectiveness of therapy. Eighty-four of the 158 possible ADRs resulting from enhanced action of drugs forming combinations listed in the 'Top Ten' were seen in 73 patients. Only four DDIs resulting in less effective therapy that involved drug combinations in the 'Top Ten' were identified. Changes in drug regimens pertaining to possible interactions were proposed or put into effect in 111 of the 172 (65%) patients with possible DDIs. Sixty-one (55%) of these patients returned for follow-up. Of these, 49 (80%) were shown to have improved after changes were made to their medication regimen. CONCLUSION: In this study, nearly half of the geriatric outpatients attending a diagnostic day clinic who were taking more than one drug were candidates for DDIs. One-quarter of these patients were found to have possible adverse events or diminished treatment effectiveness that may have been at least partly caused by these DDIs. These potential interactions can be identified through clinical evaluation. In the majority of patients (99 of 172) the potential interactions resulting in possible ADRs or diminished effectiveness were not present in the 'Top Ten' interactions described by a national database of public pharmacies, a finding that emphasizes that the particular characteristics of geriatric patients (e.g. frequent psychiatric co-morbidities) need to be considered when evaluating their drug use. At least 7% of all patients taking more than one drug, and 80% of those with possible drug interactions whose drug regimen was adjusted, benefited from changes made to their drug regimens.

The Cross-Cultural Dementia Screening (CCD): A new neuropsychological screening instrument for dementia in elderly immigrants.

OBJECTIVE: Currently, approximately 3.9% of the European population are non-EU citizens, and a large part of these people are from "non-Western" societies, such as Turkey and Morocco. For various reasons, the incidence of dementia in this group is expected to increase. However, cognitive testing is challenging due to language barriers and low education and/or illiteracy. The newly developed Cross-Cultural Dementia Screening (CCD) can be administered without an interpreter. It contains three subtests that assess memory, mental speed, and executive function. We hypothesized the CCD to be a culture-fair test that could discriminate between demented patients and cognitively healthy controls. METHOD: To test this hypothesis, 54 patients who had probable dementia were recruited via memory clinics. Controls (N = 1625) were recruited via their general practitioners. All patients and controls were aged 55 years and older and of six different self-defined ethnicities (Dutch, Turkish, Moroccan-Arabic, Moroccan-Berber, Surinamese-Creole, and Surinamese-Hindustani). Exclusion criteria included current or previous conditions that affect cognitive functioning. RESULTS: There were performance differences between the ethnic groups, but these disappeared after correcting for age and education differences between the groups, which supports our central hypothesis that the CCD is a culture-fair test. Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) and logistic regression analyses showed that the CCD has high predictive validity for dementia (sensitivity: 85%; specificity: 89%). DISCUSSION: The CCD is a sensitive and culture-fair neuropsychological instrument for dementia screening in low-educated immigrant populations.

Evaluation of pharmacotherapy in geriatric patients after performing complete geriatric assessment at a diagnostic day clinic.

BACKGROUND: Elderly patients often take multiple drugs. It is known that polypharmacy, i.e. use of five or more drugs, may lead to drug interactions and adverse events. However, undertreatment of conditions or illnesses is also a concern in geriatric patients. A centralised review of both diagnoses and medication may play a key role in optimising pharmacotherapy in geriatric patients. The aims of this study were to evaluate the quality and appropriateness of medication after performing a complete geriatric assessment (CGA) and medication review at a diagnostic geriatric day clinic, to investigate reasons for drug changes, and to determine whether medication review leads to a reduction in the number of drugs used. METHODS: A chart review was performed in 702 patients (mean age 82.0 years, range 57.1-104.1 years) who underwent a CGA at a diagnostic geriatric day clinic. Medication at admission, changes in medication and reasons for changes were noted. RESULTS: Vitamins, for example folic acid and vitamin B(12) (cyanocobalamin), and trimethoprim for urinary tract infections were the most frequently started medications after CGA and medication review. The number of drugs used was reduced in only a minority of patients (11.7%); reasons for discontinuation were a diagnosis that was no longer relevant (38.8%), adverse events (33.2%) and identification of better pharmacotherapeutic options (22.0%). In 69.2% of the cases a new diagnosis was the reason for starting a new medication, followed by osteoporosis prophylaxis (15.0%) and improvement in pharmacotherapy (10.6%). At admission, patients were taking a mean number of 4.6 drugs (range 0-17). A mean of 0.8 drugs (range from reduction of 5 to addition of 7) had been added per patient, resulting in a mean number of 5.4 (range 0-18) prescribed drugs at discharge. CONCLUSION: Evaluation of medication in patients after performing CGA at the geriatric day clinic investigated resulted in relevant medication changes. The main reason for prescribing new drugs was a new diagnosis. Absence of a relevant medical indication was the main reason for stopping drugs. CGA and medication review resulted in a mean net addition of 0.8 drugs per patient.

Individualized evaluation of cholinesterase inhibitors effects in dementia with adaptive cognitive testing.

Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) of cognitive function, selects for every individual patient, only items of appropriate difficulty to estimate his or her level of cognitive impairment. Therefore, CAT has the potential to combine brevity with precision. We retrospectively examined the evaluation of treatment effects of cholinesterase inhibitors by CAT using longitudinal data from 643 patients from a Dutch teaching hospital who were diagnosed with Alzheimer disease or Lewy Body disease. The Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG) was administered before treatment initiation and after intervals of six months of treatment. A previously validated CAT was simulated using 47 CAMCOG items. Results demonstrated that the CAT required a median number of 17 items (inter-quartile range 16-20), or a corresponding 64% test reduction, to estimate patients' global cognitive impairment levels. At the same time, intraclass correlations between global cognitive impairment levels as estimated by CAT or based on all 47 CAMCOG items, ranged from 0.93 at baseline to 0.91-0.94 at follow-up measurements. Slightly more people had substantial decline on the original CAMCOG (N = 31/285, 11%) than on the CAT (N = 17/285, 6%). We conclude that CAT saves time, does not lose much precision, and therefore deserves a role in the evaluation of treatment effects in dementia. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Association of Medication-Use and Frailty-Related Factors with Gait Performance in Older Patients.

The increased fall risk associated with the use of psychotropic drugs might be caused by underlying problems in postural control that are induced by sedative side-effects of these drugs. The current literature on the effects of psychotropics on postural control only examined acute single-drug effects, and included relatively healthy young elderly. Consequently, it is unclear what the impact of the long-term use of these drugs is on gait in frail older persons with polypharmacy. Therefore, it was aimed in the present study to explore the association between the use of psychotropics, multiple other medications, frailty-related parameters and gait performance in older patients. Eighty older persons (79±5.6 years) were recruited. Comorbid diseases, frailty-related parameters, and medication-use were registered. Trunk accelerations during a 3-minute-walking-task were recorded, whereof walking speed, mean stride times, coefficient of variation (CV) of stride times, and step consistency were determined. Multivariate Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression analysis was used to examine the association between population characteristics and medication-use, versus gait parameters. A PLS-model existing of four latent variables was built, explaining 45% of the variance in four gait parameters. Frailty-related factors, being female, and laxative-use were most strongly associated with lower walking speed, higher mean stride times, higher CV of stride times, and less consistent steps. In conclusion, frailty-related parameters were stronger associated with impaired gait performance than the use of psychotropic drugs. Possibly, at a certain frailty-level, the effect of the deterioration in physical functioning in frailty is so large, that the instability-provoking side-effects of psychotropic drugs have less impact on gait.

Effectiveness of a Geriatric Care Model for frail older adults in primary care: Results from a stepped wedge cluster randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Primary care-based comprehensive care programs have the potential to improve outcomes in frail older adults. We evaluated the impact of the Geriatric Care Model (GCM) on the quality of life of community-dwelling frail older adults. METHODS: A 24-month stepped wedge cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted between May 2010 and March 2013 in 35 primary care practices in the Netherlands, and included 1147 frail older adults. The intervention consisted of a geriatric in-home assessment by a practice nurse, followed by a tailored care plan. Reassessment occurred every six months. Nurses worked together with primary care physicians and were supervised and trained by geriatric expert teams. Complex patients were reviewed in multidisciplinary consultations. The primary outcome was quality of life (SF-12). Secondary outcomes were health-related quality of life, functional limitations, self-rated health, psychological wellbeing, social functioning and hospitalizations. RESULTS: Intention-to-treat analyses based on multilevel modeling showed no significant differences between the intervention group and usual care regarding SF-12 and most secondary outcomes. Only for IADL limitations we found a small intervention effect in patients who received the intervention for 18months (B=-0.25, 95%CI=-0.43 to -0.06, p=0.007), but this effect was not statistically significant after correction for multiple comparisons. CONCLUSION: The GCM did not show beneficial effects on quality of life in frail older adults in primary care, compared to usual care. This study strengthens the idea that comprehensive care programs add very little to usual primary care for this population. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The Netherlands National Trial Register NTR2160.

A flexed posture in elderly patients is associated with impairments in postural control during walking.

A flexed posture (FP) is characterized by protrusion of the head and an increased thoracic kyphosis (TK), which may be caused by osteoporotic vertebral fractures (VFs). These impairments may affect motor function, and consequently increase the risk of falling and fractures. The aim of the current study was therefore to examine postural control during walking in elderly patients with FP, and to investigate the relationship with geriatric phenomena that may cause FP, such as increased TK, VFs, frailty, polypharmacy and cognitive impairments. Fifty-six elderly patients (aged 80 ± 5.2 years; 70% female) walked 160 m at self-selected speed while trunk accelerations were recorded. Walking speed, mean stride time and coefficient of variation (CV) of stride time were recorded. In addition, postural control during walking was quantified by time-dependent variability measures derived from the theory of stochastic dynamics, indicating smoothness, degree of predictability, and local stability of trunk acceleration patterns. Twenty-five patients (45%) had FP and demonstrated a more variable and less structured gait pattern, and a more irregular trunk acceleration pattern than patients with normal posture. FP was significantly associated with an increased TK, but not with other geriatric phenomena. An increased TK may bring the body's centre of mass forward, which requires correcting responses, and reduces the ability to respond on perturbation, which was reflected by higher variation in the gait pattern in FP-patients. Impairments in postural control during walking are a major risk factor for falling: the results indicate that patients with FP have impaired postural control during walking and might therefore be at increased risk of falling.

The effects of fall-risk-increasing drugs on postural control: a literature review.

Meta-analyses showed that psychotropic drugs (antidepressants, neuroleptics, benzodiazepines, antiepileptic drugs) and some cardiac drugs (digoxin, type IA anti-arrhythmics, diuretics) are associated with increased fall risk. Because balance and gait disorders are the most consistent predictors of future falls, falls due to use of these so-called fall-risk-increasing drugs (FRIDs) might be partly caused by impairments of postural control that these drugs can induce. Therefore, the effects of FRIDs on postural control were examined by reviewing literature. Electronic databases and reference lists of identified papers were searched until June 2013. Only controlled research papers examining the effects of FRIDs on postural control were included. FRIDs were defined according to meta-analyses as antidepressants, neuroleptics, benzodiazepines, antiepileptic drugs, digoxin, type IA anti-arrhythmics, and diuretics. Ninety-four papers were included, of which study methods for quantifying postural control, and the effects of FRIDs on postural control were abstracted. Postural control was assessed with a variety of instruments, mainly evaluating aspects of body sway during quiet standing. In general, postural control was impaired, indicated by an increase in parameters quantifying body sway, when using psychotropic FRIDs. The effects were more pronounced when people were of a higher age, used psychotropics at higher daily doses, with longer half-lives, and administered for a longer period. From the present literature review, it can be concluded that psychotropic drugs cause impairments in postural control, which is probably one of the mediating factors for the increased fall risk these FRIDs are associated with. The sedative effects of these drugs on postural control are reversible, as was proven in intervention studies where FRIDs were withdrawn. The findings of the present literature review highlight the importance of using psychotropic drugs in the older population only at the lowest effective dose and for a limited period of time.

Testing postural control among various osteoporotic patient groups: a literature review.

AIM: Osteoporosis can cause vertebral fractures, which might lead to a flexed posture, impaired postural control and consequently increased fall risk. Therefore, the aim of the present review was to examine whether postural control of patients with osteoporosis, vertebral fractures, thoracic kyphosis and flexed posture is affected. Furthermore, instruments measuring postural control were evaluated and examined for sensitivity and easy clinical use. METHODS: Until February 2011, electronic databases were systematically searched for cross-sectional studies. Methodological quality was assessed with a modified Downs & Black scale. RESULTS: Of the 518 found studies, 18 studies were included. Postural control was generally affected for patients with vertebral fractures, thoracic kyphosis and flexed posture. Patients with osteoporosis had impaired postural control when assessed with computerized instruments. Easy performance-based tests did not show any impairments. CONCLUSIONS: There is evidence for an impaired postural control in all patient groups included. Impaired postural control is an important risk factor for falls. Functional performance tests are not sensitive and specific enough to detect affected postural control in patients with osteoporosis. To detect impaired postural control among osteoporotic patients and to obtain more insight into the underlying mechanisms of postural control, computerized instruments are recommended, such as easy-to-use ambulant motion-sensing (accelerometry) technology.

Changes in under-treatment after comprehensive geriatric assessment: an observational study.

BACKGROUND: Under-treatment is frequently present in geriatric patients. Because this patient group often suffer from multiple diseases, polypharmacy (defined as the concomitant chronic use of five or more drugs) and contraindications to indicated drugs may also frequently be present. OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of under-treatment with respect to frequently indicated medications before and after comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) and the prevalence of contraindications to these medications. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The geriatric outpatients evaluated in this study had previously been included in a prospective descriptive study conducted in 2004. Demographic data, medical history, co-morbidity and medication use and changes were documented. The absence of drugs indicated for frequently under-treated conditions before and after CGA was compared. Under-treatment was defined as omission of drug therapy indicated for the treatment or prevention of 13 established diseases or conditions known to be frequently under-treated. Co-morbid conditions were independently classified by two geriatricians, who determined whether or not a condition represented a contraindication to use of these drugs. RESULTS: In 2004, 807 geriatric outpatients were referred for CGA. Of these, 548 patients had at least one of the 13 selected diseases or conditions. Thirty-two of these patients were excluded from the analysis, leaving 516 patients. Before CGA, 170 of these patients were under-treated (32.9%); after CGA, 115 patients (22.3%) were under-treated. Contraindications were present in 102 of the patients (19.8%) and were more frequent in under-treated patients. After CGA, mean drug use and the prevalence of polypharmacy increased. Although 393 drugs were discontinued after CGA, the overall number of drugs used increased from 3177 before CGA to 3424 after CGA. Five times more drugs were initiated for a new diagnosis than for correction of under-treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Under-treatment is significantly reduced after CGA. Patients with contraindications to indicated medicines are more frequently under-treated. CGA leads to an increase in polypharmacy, mainly because of new conditions being diagnosed and despite frequent discontinuation of medications.

Contraindications for anticoagulation in older patients with atrial fibrillation; a narrative review.

BACKGROUND: Oral anticoagulation (OAC) is the most effective treatment to prevent strokes in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF). Many older patients are not prescribed OAC. OBJECTIVE: To explore which co-morbid conditions in older patients with AF have been associated with under-treatment with OAC, or were used as exclusion criteria for trials, or have been associated with increased risk of bleeding. METHODS: A Pubmed search was conducted with the terms elderly, atrial fibrillation, stroke risk, bleeding risk, intracranial haemorrhage, cognition, fall risk, renal dysfunction, alcohol abuse, malignancy, polypharmacy, NSAID, under-treatment, under-use and under-prescription. RESULTS: Higher age is associated with under-treatment. Patients with a higher risk of stroke show higher rates of bleeding complications. The associations of bleeding rates with possible contraindications are inconsistent. DISCUSSION: Published bleeding rates reflect selection bias, describing mainly relatively healthy older patients. The use of stratification schemes for stroke risk and for bleeding risk will have to be implemented. CONCLUSION: The decision to prescribe OAC in older patients with AF remains a challenging task since bleeding risk is difficult to estimate reliably. Stratification schemes may be helpful.

Reasons for undertreatment with oral anticoagulants in frail geriatric outpatients with atrial fibrillation: a prospective, descriptive study.

OBJECTIVES: The main aims of the study were to explore whether oral anticoagulation (OAC) for atrial fibrillation (AF) in geriatric outpatients is prescribed in accordance with international (American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association/European Society of Cardiology [ACC/AHA/ESC]) and Dutch national guidelines for the general practitioner (GP) and to identify whether age and selected co-morbid conditions are associated with undertreatment. As a secondary objective, we wanted to establish how many patients discontinue OAC because of major bleeding. METHODS: In 2004, at the first visit of all patients to the geriatric day clinic of the Slotervaart Hospital in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, demographic data, Mini-Mental State Examination score, medical history, Charlson Comorbidity Index score, and data on medication use and changes were documented. The presence of AF was established by assessment of medical history information obtained by the GP, the history taken from patients and their caregivers, and the results of clinical evaluation, including ECG findings. Associations between the use of OAC, demographic data and co-morbid conditions registered in the Dutch NHG (Nederlands Huisartsen Genootschap [Dutch College of General Practitioners]) standard for GPs as risk factors for stroke or contraindications to the use of OAC were analysed. The reasons for discontinuing OAC were assessed after 4 years by requesting the information from the anticoagulation services or the GP. RESULTS: At the time of the initial visit, 17.5% of the 807 outpatients had chronic AF (n = 135) or were known to have paroxysmal AF (n = 6). The mean age of the 141 patients in this cohort was 84.3 years (SD 6.2 years). Co-morbid conditions increasing the risk of stroke were present in 129 patients (91.5%). Contraindications to the use of OAC were observed in 118 patients (83.7%). Of the 116 patients with AF in their history before their visit, 57.8% were being treated with OAC at the time of their visit. After comprehensive geriatric assessment, 73 (51.8%) of the 141 patients with chronic or paroxysmal AF were continued on OAC. Of the 141 patients with chronic or paroxysmal AF, 110 (78.0%) had both extra stroke risk factors and contraindications to the use of OAC. Only increasing age was significantly and independently associated with not being prescribed anticoagulants (p < 0.001). At the 4-year follow-up, OAC had been discontinued in 5.5% of patients because of major bleeding; three patients (4.1%) taking OAC had died as a result of major bleeding, and one other patient had discontinued treatment because of a major, non-lethal bleeding episode. CONCLUSION: Applying the NHG standard for appropriate prescription, and disregarding age as a risk factor or contraindication, in this population, 14 of 141 patients (9.9%) were inappropriately prescribed OAC, salicylates or no prophylaxis. Since only patient age was associated with not prescribing OAC in this study, higher age still seems to be considered the most important contraindication to anticoagulation therapy. Implementation of better models for stratifying bleeding risk in the frail elderly is needed. After 4 years, the cumulative rate of bleeding causing discontinuation of anticoagulation therapy in this usual-care study of frail older patients was not alarmingly higher than in other usual-care studies.