Geodiversity in the Amazon drainage basin.

The Amazon is the largest drainage basin on Earth and contains a wide variety of abiotic landscape features. In spite of this, the geodiversity in this basin has not yet been objectively evaluated. We address this knowledge gap by combining a meta-analysis of an existing global geodiversity map and its components with a systematic literature review, to identify the key characteristics of geodiversity in the Amazon drainage basin (ADB). We also evaluate how these global geodiversity component maps, that are based on the geology, geomorphology, soils and hydrology, could be refined to better reflect geodiversity in the basin. Our review shows that geology-through lithological diversity and geological structures-and hydrology-through hydrological processes that influence geomorphology and soil diversity-are the main determinants of geodiversity. Based on these features, the ADB can be subdivided into three principal regions: (i) the Andean orogenic belt and western Amazon, (ii) the cratons and eastern Amazon, and (iii) the Solimões-Amazon river system. Additional methods to map geomorphological and hydrological diversity have been identified. Future research should focus on investigating the relationship between the geodiversity components and assess their relationship with biodiversity. Such knowledge can enhance conservation plans for the ADB. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

Global geodiversity components are not equally represented in UNESCO Global Geoparks.

The aim of UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGs) is to protect globally significant geoheritage and geodiversity, but quantitative evidence on the global representativeness of geodiversity components (i.e. geology, soils, geomorphology and hydrology) in these geoparks is in short supply. Here, we provide a first assessment by deriving a global map of geodiversity to test whether the presence of geodiversity components in UGGs is representative for the global availability and distribution of geodiversity. Using openly accessible global datasets and a newly developed workflow, we have calculated metrics for each geodiversity component and a global geodiversity index; we then quantified whether UGGs represent global geodiversity and then compared their components to a randomized spatial distribution of geoparks. Our results show that lithological and topographical diversity are more represented in UGGs than outside these sites, while soil type and hydrological diversity are not significantly different. Furthermore, individual soil types and lithological classes are under-represented and unevenly distributed in Asian and European UGGs. This is probably caused by the concentration of geoparks in Asian and European mountains. To better conserve geodiversity, we suggest an initiative to consider the protection and representation of all geodiversity components in their global context. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

The status and future of essential geodiversity variables.

Rapid environmental change, natural resource overconsumption and increasing concerns about ecological sustainability have led to the development of 'Essential Variables' (EVs). EVs are harmonized data products to inform policy and to enable effective management of natural resources by monitoring global changes. Recent years have seen the instigation of new EVs beyond those established for climate, oceans and biodiversity (ECVs, EOVs and EBVs), including Essential Geodiversity Variables (EGVs). EGVs aim to consistently quantify and monitor heterogeneity of Earth-surface and subsurface abiotic features, including geology, geomorphology, hydrology and pedology. Here we assess the status and future development of EGVs to better incorporate geodiversity into policy and sustainable management of natural resources. Getting EGVs operational requires better consensus on defining geodiversity, investments into a governance structure and open platform for curating the development of EGVs, advances in harmonizing in situ measurements and linking heterogeneous databases, and development of open and accessible computational workflows for global digital mapping using machine-learning techniques. Cross-disciplinary collaboration and partnerships with governmental and private organizations are needed to ensure the successful development and uptake of EGVs across science and policy. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

Towards a taxonomy of geodiversity.

Geodiversity is a topical concept in earth and environmental sciences. Geodiversity information is needed to conserve nature, use ecosystem services and achieve sustainable development goals. Despite the increasing demand for geodiversity data, there exists no comprehensive system for categorizing geodiversity. Here, we present a hierarchically structured taxonomy that is potentially applicable in mapping and quantifying geodiversity across different regions, environments and scales. In this taxonomy, the main components of geodiversity are geology, geomorphology, hydrology and pedology. We propose a six-level hierarchical system where the components of geodiversity are classified at progressively lower taxonomic levels based on their genesis, physical-chemical properties and morphology. This comprehensive taxonomy can be used to compile geodiversity information for scientific research and various applications of value to society and nature conservation. Ultimately, this hierarchical system is the first step towards developing a global geodiversity taxonomy. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

Case studies associated with the 10 major geodiversity-related topics.

This paper outlines the 10 major topics related to geodiversity that have emerged since the concept was first introduced in 1993, 30 years ago. After a short introduction, each of the 10 topics is then illustrated by a relevant case study. The 10 topics (italics) and their case studies (bold) are as follows: 1. Celebrating, International Geodiversity Day; 2. Measurement/Assessment, Potential role of remote sensing; 3. Natural Capital and Geosystem Services, Coastal geosystem services; 4. Biodiversity, Mangue de Pedra, Brazil; 5. Geomaterials, The circular economy; 6. Geotourism, World's top geotourism sites?; 7. Geoheritage, Landscape restoration; 8. National Geoconservation, Trump golf course and an SSSI, Scotland; 9. World Heritage Sites and Global Geoparks, Azores Global Geopark, Portugal; 10. Sustainability, Xitle Volcano, Mexico City. It is concluded that, given the way in which geodiversity has developed as a concept, leading to new insights and avenues of research and advancing our understanding of the world since its first use, it clearly now constitutes a significant, geoscientific paradigm. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

Monitoring vegetation- and geodiversity with remote sensing and traits.

Geodiversity has shaped and structured the Earth's surface at all spatio-temporal scales, not only through long-term processes but also through medium- and short-term processes. Geodiversity is, therefore, a key control and regulating variable in the overall development of landscapes and biodiversity. However, climate change and land use intensity are leading to major changes and disturbances in bio- and geodiversity. For sustainable ecosystem management, temporal, economically viable and standardized monitoring is needed to monitor and model the effects and changes in vegetation- and geodiversity. RS approaches have been used for this purpose for decades. However, to understand in detail how RS approaches capture vegetation- and geodiversity, the aim of this paper is to describe how five features of vegetation- and geodiversity are captured using RS technologies, namely: (i) trait diversity, (ii) phylogenetic/genese diversity, (iii) structural diversity, (iv) taxonomic diversity and (v) functional diversity. Trait diversity is essential for establishing the other four. Traits provide a crucial interface between in situ, close-range, aerial and space-based RS monitoring approaches. The trait approach allows complex data of different types and formats to be linked using the latest semantic data integration techniques, which will enable ecosystem integrity monitoring and modelling in the future. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

A framework for quantifying geodiversity at the local scale: a case study from the Rokua UNESCO Global Geopark.

Geoconservation and related quantitative and qualitative geodiversity assessments are gaining increasing attention. However, methodologies for measuring geodiversity at local scale are currently rare. Here, we present a framework for assessing local-scale geodiversity of different landforms using field-based and digital elevation model (DEM-) derived data from the Rokua UNESCO Global Geopark in Finland. We observed the presence or absence of various geodiversity elements, such as geological or topographical elements in our study sites, and used these data to quantify alpha (α), gamma (γ) and beta (ß) geodiversity of various landforms. In addition, we measured topographical heterogeneity in the field and from DEMs. The results showed distinct patterns in the geodiversity and topographical variation of the landforms. The differences between α, γ and ß geodiversity of different landforms were particularly clear. According to the results, measures of topographical variability can be used to some extent as surrogates for geodiversity, but the choice of optimal variables is context and scale dependent. These results provide perspectives for further local-scale geodiversity assessments in different study areas and are applicable for a range of purposes, from scientific research to practical management and geoconservation. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

The influence of scale-dependent geodiversity on species distribution models in a biodiversity hotspot.

Improving models of species' distributions is essential for conservation, especially in light of global change. Species distribution models (SDMs) often rely on mean environmental conditions, yet species distributions are also a function of environmental heterogeneity and filtering acting at multiple spatial scales. Geodiversity, which we define as the variation of abiotic features and processes of Earth's entire geosphere (inclusive of climate), has potential to improve SDMs and conservation assessments, as they capture multiple abiotic dimensions of species niches, however they have not been sufficiently tested in SDMs. We tested a range of geodiversity variables computed at varying scales using climate and elevation data. We compared predictive performance of MaxEnt SDMs generated using CHELSA bioclimatic variables to those also including geodiversity variables for 31 mammalian species in Colombia. Results show the spatial grain of geodiversity variables affects SDM performance. Some variables consistently exhibited an increasing or decreasing trend in variable importance with spatial grain, showing slight scale-dependence and indicating that some geodiversity variables are more relevant at particular scales for some species. Incorporating geodiversity variables into SDMs, and doing so at the appropriate spatial scales, enhances the ability to model species-environment relationships, thereby contributing to the conservation and management of biodiversity. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

The dilemma of valuing geodiversity: geoconservation versus geotourism.

Geodiversity and geosystem services are confronting global threats. However, the majority of conservation strategies tend to overlook the geological component within ecosystems. The existing literature centres on biodiversity, ecosystem services and their economic valuation. In this paper, we conduct a systematic literature review to identify the gap in the assessment of geological diversity, pinpointing areas where scientific contributions are needed to safeguard geological resources. Our findings reveal a concentration of studies assessing geodiversity in European and Asian countries. While the majority of the reviewed papers emphasizes the recreational features and associated values of geological resources, promoting geotourism and recognizing its potential for economic growth, there is a significant oversight concerning the impact of tourism on geological resources. Existing assessments predominantly focus on visitors' perceptions and preferences, sidelining the inhabitants' perspective and their crucial roles in the conservation of geodiversity. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

Linking geodiversity and geosystem services to human well-being for the sustainable utilization of the subsurface and the urban environment.

Because the functions of the subsurface are hidden from view, its important role in society is often ignored or taken for granted. The subsurface is, however, an essential part of the global ecosystem with important contributions to human well-being. Geodiversity is an important characteristic in this respect. Material supply is the more obvious role of the subsurface with projections of a doubling of global material use in 2060 as compared to 2017. Moreover, creating underground spaces and infrastructure are gaining importance in the urban environment. The main reason for the inadequate protection of geodiversity is the lack of a comprehensive and integrative framework. Linking socio-economic activities to biophysical system characteristics of the subsurface is facilitated by the geosystem services approach. Sustainable urban development strategies require including geodiversity in decision-making on human well-being and setting conditions for land use change. Spatial plans and decisions on the use of natural endowments should look at processes over much longer timeframes. In this paper, we explore the links between human well-being and the subsurface with an emphasis on the role of geodiversity. We set out a methodological framework and describe possible long term three-dimensional land use planning consequences for sustainable utilization of the subsurface. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

Boundary of ecosystem services: Differentiating between ecosystem services and geosystem services is needed.

Geosystem services (GSs) and ecosystem services (ESs) are interconnected, both representing nature's contributions to people. Whether GSs are a subset of ESs depends on the definition of ESs. The answer would be "not necessarily" (i.e., some GSs are, while other GSs are not), if ESs are the benefits humans derive from ecological functions, processes, or characteristics. The boundary proposed by Chen et al. (2023) to differentiate ESs from other ecosystem-related benefits adopted this definition, and suggested that ESs are renewable and affected by biotic elements to occur. Gray et al. (2024) criticized this boundary for separating out bits of nature and ignoring the contributions of GSs and abiotic elements to ESs and human wellbeing. In fact, highlighting that ESs are affected by biotic elements to occur does not deny that ESs' occurrence is also affected by abiotic elements. However, ESs' dependence on abiotic elements cannot be a criterion to differentiate ESs from other benefits because abiotic elements are integral to geosystems, ecosystems, and many other natural and artificial systems, as well as to these systems' services. Conversely, while geosystems might persist without biotic elements, ecosystems cannot. Chen et al. (2023) only excluded those (not the whole) abiotic benefits, such as wind energy, that may occur independently of biotic elements, while allowing for integrating certain GSs into ESs. For example, geological structures can offer flood protection and water storage as GSs, which can also be classified as ESs when their qualities or quantities are affected by biotic elements. Differentiation between GSs and ESs should not be misinterpreted as splitting their interconnections or undervaluing or dividing nature. Instead, such differentiation and classification of nature's benefits serve to facilitate communication, management, education, research, and policy-making associated with nature's benefits, while also highlighting the richness and diversity of nature's benefits.

Misguided policy may jeopardize a diverse South brazilian environmental protection area / Política equivocada pode colocar em risco uma área de preservação ambiental do sul do Brasil

Abstract: The Devonian Escarpment (DEEPA), located in the south of Brazil, represents an important area of environmental preservation composed by grasslands, gallery forests, as well as rock outcrops and archaeological sites. A law project (LP 527/2016), which suggests a reduction of the DEEPA area in approximately 70% of its original area (from 393,579 to 125,895 ha), is currently being processed in the Paraná State House of Representatives. Such reduction seems to be related to economic interests (mainly agriculture and mining) in the state of Paraná. If approved, LP 527/2016 will allow farmers to deliberately expand their activities, with the suppression of natural forest as main consequence. Additionally, loss of faunal diversity, contamination of water and soils, and alteration in nutrient cycles are expected, due the intensive use of agrochemicals. In addition to the direct environmental consequences, we expect the disappearance of areas of high geological interest, reducing local geodiversity, as well as substantial economic losses with ecotourism. Brazil is a signatory to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, where it undertakes to develop strategies to prevent biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation by 2020. An approval of the LP would be contradictory, considering that there are few natural vegetation areas in this region of the country. We emphasize that the proposal of such projects goes against the sustainability in the country and disregard the scientific knowledge generated until then. Thus, it is necessary to develop regional and federal political objectives that guarantee economic development in a balanced way, considering the local bio and geodiversity, not the proposal of mechanisms that destroy them.

Resumo: A Escarpa Devoniana (APAED), localizada no sul do Brasil, representa uma importante área de preservação ambiental composta por campos, matas de galeria, além de afloramentos rochosos e sítios arqueológicos. Atualmente, tramita na câmara dos deputados do estado do Paraná um projeto de lei estadual (PL 527/2016) que sugere a redução da área da APAED em aproximadamente 70% de sua área original (de 393.579 para 125.895 ha). Tal redução parece estar relacionada com interesses econômicos (principalmente agropecuária e mineração) no estado do Paraná. Caso aprovado, o PL 527/2016 permitirá que agricultores expandam suas atividades deliberadamente, tendo como consequência principal a supressão de áreas de floresta nativa. Com isso, espera-se perda de diversidade faunística, contaminação de água e solos e alteração nos ciclos de nutrientes, dado o aumento no uso de agroquímicos. Além das consequências ambientas diretas, podemos esperar o desaparecimento de elevado interesse geológico, reduzindo a geodiversidade local, além de substanciais perdas econômicas com ecoturismo. O Brasil é um dos países signatários da Convenção da Diversidade Biológica das Nações Unidas, onde se compromete a desenvolver estratégias que evitem a perda da biodiversidade e a degradação de ecossistemas até 2020. Assim, a aprovação desse projeto de lei é, no mínimo, contraditória considerando que existem poucas áreas de vegetação natural nessa região do país. Destacamos que a proposta de tais projetos vai contra a sustentabilidade no país e desconsideram o conhecimento científico gerado até então. Dessa forma, é necessário o desenvolvimento de objetivos políticos regionais e federais que garantam o desenvolvimento econômico de forma equilibrada, considerando a bio e geodiversidade local, e não a proposta de mecanismos que as destruam.

Geoparque en el Distrito Minero Tlalpujahua-El Oro / Geopark in Tlalpujahua-El Oro Mining District

RESUMEN La creación y declaratoria de los geoparques en el mundo ha sido exitosa, debido a la capacidad de gestión ambiental y social que poseen. La noción de desarrollo local, a través de la administración de estos territorios en México, se impulsa con investigación enfocada al análisis de potencialidad de los territorios desde hace unos años. El objetivo de este trabajo fue conocer el potencial que posee el distrito minero Tlalpujahua-El Oro para aspirar a ser declarado geoparque. A través de un sistema de evaluación matricial se obtuvieron los índices de patrimonio geológico y geomorfológico, de cultura y educación, economía y servicios, protección y legislación, y de accesibilidad, para determinar el potencial geológico, geomorfológico, cultural y socioeconómico, además de la fundamentación teórica. Se encontraron condiciones favorables para poder conformar al distrito minero como un geo-parque, al determinar el valor biótico, histórico y cultural de la mina Dos Estrellas. Lograr esta denominación impulsaría el crecimiento social y económico de la región, teniendo a la geoconservación como eje rector e integrador de la propuesta.

ABSTRACT The establishment and declaration of geoparks in the world has been successful due to the ability of environmental and social management that they possess. The notion of local development through the administration of these territories in Mexico has been driven for several years by research focused on the analysis of potential in natural heritage territories. The objective of this work was to determine the potential of Tlalpujahua-El Oro Mining District to be declared geopark. The indices of geological and geomorphological heritage, culture and education, economy and public services, protection and legislation and accessibility were obtained through a matrix assessment system. After determining the biotic, historical, and cultural value of the mine, it is concluded that favorable conditions were encountered in order to declare this territory as a geopark. Achieving this denomination would foster the social and economic growth of the region, with geopreservation as the guiding principle of the proposal.