Modeling the Visual Landscape: A Review on Approaches, Methods and Techniques.

Modeling the perception and evaluation of landscapes from the human perspective is a desirable goal for several scientific domains and applications. Human vision is the dominant sense, and human eyes are the sensors for apperceiving the environmental stimuli of our surroundings. Therefore, exploring the experimental recording and measurement of the visual landscape can reveal crucial aspects about human visual perception responses while viewing the natural or man-made landscapes. Landscape evaluation (or assessment) is another dimension that refers mainly to preferences of the visual landscape, involving human cognition as well, in ways that are often unpredictable. Yet, landscape can be approached by both egocentric (i.e., human view) and exocentric (i.e., bird's eye view) perspectives. The overarching approach of this review article lies in systematically presenting the different ways for modeling and quantifying the two 'modalities' of human perception and evaluation, under the two geometric perspectives, suggesting integrative approaches on these two 'diverging' dualities. To this end, several pertinent traditions/approaches, sensor-based experimental methods and techniques (e.g., eye tracking, fMRI, and EEG), and metrics are adduced and described. Essentially, this review article acts as a 'guide-map' for the delineation of the different activities related to landscape experience and/or management and to the valid or potentially suitable types of stimuli, sensors techniques, and metrics for each activity. Throughout our work, two main research directions are identified: (1) one that attempts to transfer the visual landscape experience/management from the one perspective to the other (and vice versa); (2) another one that aims to anticipate the visual perception of different landscapes and establish connections between perceptual processes and landscape preferences. As it appears, the research in the field is rapidly growing. In our opinion, it can be greatly advanced and enriched using integrative, interdisciplinary approaches in order to better understand the concepts and the mechanisms by which the visual landscape, as a complex set of stimuli, influences visual perception, potentially leading to more elaborate outcomes such as the anticipation of landscape preferences. As an effect, such approaches can support a rigorous, evidence-based, and socially just framework towards landscape management, protection, and decision making, based on a wide spectrum of well-suited and advanced sensor-based technologies.

Dispersal network heterogeneity promotes species coexistence in hierarchical competitive communities.

Understanding the mechanisms of biodiversity maintenance is a fundamental issue in ecology. The possibility that species disperse within the landscape along differing paths presents a relatively unexplored mechanism by which diversity could emerge. By embedding a classical metapopulation model within a network framework, we explore how access to different dispersal networks can promote species coexistence. While it is clear that species with the same demography cannot coexist stably on shared dispersal networks, we find that coexistence is possible on unshared networks, as species can surprisingly form self-organised clusters of occupied patches with the most connected patches at the core. Furthermore, a unimodal biodiversity response to an increase in species colonisation rates or average patch connectivity emerges in unshared networks. Increasing network size also increases species richness monotonically, producing characteristic species-area curves. This suggests that, in contrast to previous predictions, many more species can co-occur than the number of limiting resources.

Landscape Visual Quality and Meiofauna Biodiversity on Sandy Beaches.

Sandy beaches are central economic assets, attracting more recreational users than other coastal ecosystems. However, urbanization and landscape modification can compromise both the functional integrity and the attractiveness of beach ecosystems. Our study aimed at investigating the relationship between sandy beach artificialization and the landscape perception by the users, and between sandy beach visual attractiveness and biodiversity. We conducted visual and biodiversity assessments of urbanized and semiurbanized sandy beaches in Brazil and Uruguay. We specifically examined meiofauna as an indicator of biodiversity. We hypothesized that urbanization of sandy beaches results in a higher number of landscape detractors that negatively affect user evaluation, and that lower-rated beach units support lower levels of biodiversity. We found that urbanized beach units were rated lower than semiurbanized units, indicating that visual quality was sensitive to human interventions. Our expectations regarding the relationship between landscape perception and biodiversity were only partially met; only few structural and functional descriptors of meiofauna assemblages differed among classes of visual quality. However, lower-rated beach units exhibited signs of lower environmental quality, indicated by higher oligochaete densities and significant differences in meiofauna structure. We conclude that managing sandy beaches needs to advance beyond assessment of aesthetic parameters to also include the structure and function of beach ecosystems. Use of such supporting tools for managing sandy beaches is particularly important in view of sea level rise and increasing coastal development.

Consensus in landscape preference judgments: the effects of landscape visual aesthetic quality and respondents' characteristics.

Landscape's visual aesthetic quality (VAQ) has been widely regarded as a valuable resource worthy of protection. Although great effort has been devoted to determining the factors driving aesthetic preferences, public consensus in judgments has been neglected in the vast majority of such studies. Therefore, the aim of our study was to analyze three main possible sources of judgment variance: landscape VAQ, landscape type, and variability among respondents. Based upon an extensive perception-based investigation including more than 400 hikers as respondents, we found that variance in respondents' judgments differed significantly among assessed landscape scenes. We discovered a significant difference in judgment variances within each investigated respondent characteristic (gender, age, education level, occupational classification, and respondent's type of residence). Judgment variance was at the same time affected by landscape VAQ itself - the higher the VAQ, the better the consensus. While differences caused by characteristics indicate subjectivity of aesthetic values, the knowledge that people better find consensus for positively perceived landscapes provides a cogent argument for legal protection of valuable landscape scenes.

Harmony in Nature: Exploring the Multisensory Impact of Classical Gardens on Individuals' Well-Being.

Objectives: Chinese classical gardens, designated as a vital world cultural heritage, embody a lasting legacy transcending generation. Despite the cultural importance of these gardens, a notable research gap exists in deciphering the nuanced emotional and physiological responses triggered by individual elements within classical garden landscapes. Our research question aims to uncover the specific emotional and physiological impacts of key garden elements-plants, architecture, waterscape, and rockery-on visitors, with a particular focus on the Humble Administrator's Garden. These elements serve as the primary subjects for video capture at four sites. Study Design: A within-subject design experiment was used. Methods: Videos were recorded at these sites, encompassing visual, auditory, and tactile elements. Ninety-five participants watched these videos in an indoor setting. While viewing, we measured participants' physiological responses, including heart rate variability, skin conductance, and skin temperature, will be monitored alongside subjective assessments obtained through self-reported questionnaires such as the Emotional Perception Scale and State-Trait Anxiety Scale. Results: Findings suggest that while all landscape types evoke positive emotions, natural elements exert a more profound influence. Additionally, the Large Rockery emerges as a focal point, indicating enhanced emotional relaxation through auditory and tactile stimuli, particularly among younger individuals. Conclusions: This research contributes to the broader understanding of how classical gardens impact human emotions and well-being, offering insights that can inform future landscape design and promote mental health in diverse cultural contexts.

Research on Spatio-Temporal Characteristics of Tourists' Landscape Perception and Emotional Experience by Using Photo Data Mining.

Mountainous scenic spots are important tourism resources, and the study of tourists' landscape perception and emotional preference when visiting them is beneficial to the management of scenic spots in order to improve the service quality and promote the protection, development, and utilization of scenic resources. In this paper, we use the location photo data of tourists at Huangshan Mountain to extract the visual semantic information of location photos, calculate the photo sentiment value, and mine the landscape perception and sentiment preference features of tourists using DeepSentiBank image recognition model and photo visual semantic quantification method. The results show the following: (1) Huangshan tourists mainly focus on nine types of photos, with the most attention paid to the category of mountain rock landscapes and the least attention paid to the category of animal landscapes. (2) In terms of spatial distribution, the landscape types of tourist photos show the spatial characteristics of "concentrated into a belt", "significant nucleus", and "fragmented distribution". The spatial variation of the emotional value of tourists' photos is significant, and the high values are mainly distributed at the entrances and exits, interchanges, and famous attractions. (3) On a temporal scale, the type of perception of the Huangshan location photograph landscape shows a significant imbalance. The emotional values of tourists' photos vary significantly, with a "slowly sloping straight line" type of emotional change on the seasonal scale, a "W" type of emotional change on the monthly scale, an "N" type of emotional change on the weekly scale, and an "M" type of emotional change on the hourly scale. This study attempts to explore the landscape perceptions and emotional preferences of tourists in mountainous scenic areas with new data and methods, aiming to promote the sustainable and high-quality development of mountainous scenic areas.

Lawn or spontaneous groundcover? Residents' perceptions of and preferences for alternative lawns in Xianyang, China.

Within urban green spaces, spontaneous groundcovers, as potential alternatives for traditional lawns, have garnered attention due to their ecological adaptability. However, little attention has been paid to whether spontaneous groundcovers can serve as suitable replacements for lawns in terms of the aesthetic values and human preferences for each. Based on questionnaires accompanied by photo elicitation, this study explored the perceptions of and preferences for seven kinds of lawns and six kinds of spontaneous groundcovers in China. The effects of social backgrounds on people's perceptions of and preferences for ground covers were also analyzed. The results indicated a general equivalence in preferences for the lawn and spontaneous groundcover. The Taraxacum mongolicum - Cynodon dactylon - Conyza canadensis community was significantly preferred most among all of the selected ground covers. Spontaneous groundcovers were regarded as more natural, wild, variable, and species-richer compared to lawns, while lawns were perceived as better kept than spontaneous groundcovers. Ground covers were preferred which were perceived to have high ecological aesthetic value and low wildness. Industry and attention to herbaceous plants mostly affected human perceptions and preferences among the social background factors, and gender, age, education level, and occupation also had significant effects. The results thus provide the support for the application of spontaneous groundcovers in moderately developed cities, but such application should consider the comprehensive development of ecological aesthetic value and the applicability of different groups of residents.

How Does the Experience of Forest Recreation Spaces in Different Seasons Affect the Physical and Mental Recovery of Users?

BACKGROUND: In recent years, increasing attention has been given to the recovery effect of the forest environment on physical and mental health. Therefore, providing users with a high-quality forest landscape space is a very important research topic for forest landscape designers and forest resource managers. MAIN PURPOSE: From the perspective of different seasons, this study explores the differences in landscape perceptions and physical and mental recovery of users when they experience different forest recreation spaces and the interactions between them. METHODS: First, this study used virtual reality video experience and questionnaires for participants. Then, the paired-samples t test, one-way ANOVA and the independent-samples t test were used for statistical analysis. Finally, we also used structural equation models to analyze the relationship between landscape perception and recovery. MAIN RESULTS: (1) The restoration effect and perception of forest recreation spaces on people are influenced by space types and seasonal factors. (2) People's restoration from forest environments is a gradual process from spatial cognition to emotional response. (3) The perception of the natural attributes and form of the recreation space plays a key role in the restorative effect of the environment to people, while the natural form is more important in spring than autumn. Based on the above conclusions, we suggest that the characteristic factors of the landscape environment and their different restoration effects for users in different dimensions should be considered when planning forest recreation space.

Exploring perceived restoration, landscape perception, and place attachment in historical districts: insights from diverse visitors.

Improving the quality of the built environment to enhance people's mental health is gaining traction across various fields, precipitating valuable actions on the wave of "Healthy China 2030" initiative. While ample studies have confirmed the benefits of interaction with natural or green spaces, the investigation into the restorative potential in urban built settings remains notably underexplored. In this study, we focused on historical districts, conducting a questionnaire survey to evaluate the restorative experiences of individuals visiting these sites. We used Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to analyze a conceptual model that encompasses landscape perception, place attachment, and perceived restoration, with a specific focus on detecting the mediating role of place attachment and the moderating influence of visitor groups. The results showed that landscape perception significantly influenced the perceived restoration, which contained the indirect effect pathway through place dependence and place identity, as well as the potent direct impact of landscape perception. Moreover, employing a multi-group analysis (MGA), we discerned that different visitor groups partially moderate the relationship between landscape perception, place attachment, and perceived restoration. This study validates the restorative features in historic districts and highlights the importance of cognitive-emotional bond in promoting psychological restoration.

How Do the Young Perceive Urban Parks? A Study on Young Adults' Landscape Preferences and Health Benefits in Urban Parks Based on the Landscape Perception Model.

(1) Background: Youth's physical and mental health is of increasing concern today. However, gaining a more comprehensive knowledge of young people's landscape preferences for urban parks is challenging. Additionally, young adults' voices (aged from 20 to 24) are often neglected. (2) Methods: This study collected 349 interview questionnaires from 2014 to 2020 and recorded them into Nvivo10. Firstly, the study did a thematic analysis using the preliminary coding framework based on the landscape perception model to code the interview data and statistics on the frequencies of each theme and code. Then, we used diffractive analysis to interpret original materials to comprehend the underlying significance. (3) Results: Our research showed that young adults' landscape perceptions are richer in diversity and express more subjective feelings. Their landscape preferences are also related to behavioral activities in addition to environmental features, which have some differences from teenagers. (4) Conclusions: It is helpful to attract more young adults by creating sound and smell landscapes, accommodating more dynamic sports and recreation facilities, and controlling unhygienic and noise problems, which can offer better design, planning, and management for creating inclusive urban parks. The landscape perception model developed in this paper can also provide a reference for related studies in the future.

Landscape Perception Identification and Classification Based on Electroencephalogram (EEG) Features.

This paper puts forward a new method of landscape recognition and evaluation by using aerial video and EEG technology. In this study, seven typical landscape types (forest, wetland, grassland, desert, water, farmland, and city) were selected. Different electroencephalogram (EEG) signals were generated through different inner experiences and feelings felt by people watching video stimuli of the different landscape types. The electroencephalogram (EEG) features were extracted to obtain the mean amplitude spectrum (MAS), power spectrum density (PSD), differential entropy (DE), differential asymmetry (DASM), rational asymmetry (RASM), and differential caudality (DCAU) in the five frequency bands of delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma. According to electroencephalogram (EEG) features, four classifiers including the back propagation (BP) neural network, k-nearest neighbor classification (KNN), random forest (RF), and support vector machine (SVM) were used to classify the landscape types. The results showed that the support vector machine (SVM) classifier and the random forest (RF) classifier had the highest accuracy of landscape recognition, which reached 98.24% and 96.72%, respectively. Among the six classification features selected, the classification accuracy of MAS, PSD, and DE with frequency domain features were higher than those of the spatial domain features of DASM, RASM and DCAU. In different wave bands, the average classification accuracy of all subjects was 98.24% in the gamma band, 94.62% in the beta band, and 97.29% in the total band. This study identifies and classifies landscape perception based on multi-channel EEG signals, which provides a new idea and method for the quantification of human perception.

Effect of landscape design on depth perception in classical Chinese gardens: A quantitative analysis using virtual reality simulation.

It is common for visitors to have rich and varied experiences in the limited space of a classical Chinese garden. This leads to the sense that the garden's scale is much larger than it really is. A main reason for this perceptual bias is the gardener's manipulation of visual information. Most studies have discussed this phenomenon in terms of qualitative description with fragmented perspectives taken from static points, without considering ambient visual information or continuously changing observation points. A general question arises, then, on why depth perception can vary from one observation point to another along a garden path. To better understand the spatial experience in classical Chinese gardens, this study focused on variations in perceived depth among different observation points and aimed to identify influential visual information through psychophysical experimentation. As stimuli for the experiment, panoramic photos of Liu garden were taken from three positions at Lvyin Pavilion. Considering the effects of pictorial visual cues on depth perception, the photos were processed to create 18 kinds of stimuli (six image treatments * three positions). Two tasks were presented to the participants. In Task 1, 71 participants were asked to rate the depth value of the garden using the magnitude estimation method in a cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE). Statistical analysis of Task 1 revealed that depth values differed significantly among different viewpoints. In Task 2, participants were asked to compare 18 stimuli and 3D images presented on three connected monitors and to judge the depth of the garden using the adjustment method. The results of Task 2 again showed that depth values differed significantly among different viewpoints. In both tasks, ambient information (i.e., the perspective of interior space) significantly influenced depth perception.

Differing perceptions of the youth and the elderly regarding cultural ecosystem services in urban parks: An exploration of the tour experience.

Parks have become important spaces for supplying cultural ecosystem services (CESs) in cities, and satisfying various needs of different age groups in parks has become a critical issue. Many studies focused on the environmental preferences and behaviours of different age groups in parks. However, results revealing the differences in value demand and acquisition between elderly and youth from a landscape spatial environmental perspective are limited. In this study, the same number of youth and elderly volunteers were recruited, according to the value-labelled photo fed back after their self-driven tour in the Huanhuaxi Urban Forest Park in Chengdu, China. In addition, this study explored the relationship between the perceived CES needs of the youth and elderly and the landscape spatial environment in the urban park ecosystem with the help of the Social Values for Ecosystem Services model. Results showed that, in comparison, to obtain recreation value, playgrounds, pavilions and squares were more important for the elderly, whereas topography, rivers, landscape sketches and trails were more important for the youth. Moreover, in terms of the sense of place, lakes and wetlands were more important for the elderly, whereas landscape sketches and playgrounds were more important for the youth. Furthermore, for the delivery of therapeutic value, squares were more important for the elderly. Spatially, the areas of lakes or wetlands with geographical combinations of landscape sketches and flowers were the high-value spots for supplying multiple CESs in urban parks. Then, squares, rivers, playgrounds and forests were the focus areas where the value identification of the two age groups diverges. This study emphasises the differences in demand and acquisition of cultural added value provided by the environment between the young and the old. The study provides a basis for more targeted land management and landscape planning of urban parks.

Effects of Plant Communities on Human Physiological Recovery and Emotional Reactions: A Comparative Onsite Survey and Photo Elicitation Study.

We investigated the effects on humans, in terms of skin conductance levels (SCLs) and positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS) scores, of plant communities that differed in their vegetation structure (single-layer woodland, tree-shrub-grass composite woodland, tree-grass composite woodland, and single-layer grassland) through two perceptual methods: onsite surveying and photo elicitation. The results showed that (1) the choice of perception method significantly impacted the PANAS scores of the participants but had no influence on the SCL and (2) viewing a single-layer grassland reduced the SCL (representing the physiological stress level) and improved the positive affect score. The recovery effects for the four vegetation communities were ranked in the order of single-layer grassland > tree-shrub-grass composite woodland > single-layer woodland > tree-grass composite woodland. (3) Gender and professional background significantly impacted the plant community perception methods and landscape experience, and negative affect scores were lower for male participants than for female participants. Participants without backgrounds in landscape design exhibited higher positive affect scores under photo elicitation. Based on the conclusions drawn above, the onsite survey is preferable between the two perception methods. It is recommended that in future landscape designs, combinations of plant community types should be reasonably matched through onsite perception. These research results can provide a scientific basis for the future design of landscapes based on perception experience.

Assessing experienced tranquillity through natural language processing and landscape ecology measures.

CONTEXT: Identifying tranquil areas is important for landscape planning and policy-making. Research demonstrated discrepancies between modelled potential tranquil areas and where people experience tranquillity based on field surveys. Because surveys are resource-intensive, user-generated text data offers potential for extracting where people experience tranquillity. OBJECTIVES: We explore and model the relationship between landscape ecological measures and experienced tranquillity extracted from user-generated text descriptions. METHODS: Georeferenced, user-generated landscape descriptions from Geograph.UK were filtered using keywords related to tranquillity. We stratify resulting tranquil locations according to dominant land cover and quantify the influence of landscape characteristics including diversity and naturalness on explaining the presence of tranquillity. Finally, we apply natural language processing to identify terms linked to tranquillity keywords and compare the similarity of these terms across land cover classes. RESULTS: Evaluation of potential keywords yielded six keywords associated with experienced tranquillity, resulting in 15,350 extracted tranquillity descriptions. The two most common land cover classes associated with tranquillity were arable and horticulture, and improved grassland, followed by urban and suburban. In the logistic regression model across all land cover classes, freshwater, elevation and naturalness were positive predictors of tranquillity. Built-up area was a negative predictor. Descriptions of tranquillity were most similar between improved grassland and arable and horticulture, and most dissimilar between arable and horticulture and urban. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the potential of applying natural language processing to extract experienced tranquillity from text, and demonstrates links between landscape ecological measures and tranquillity as a perceived landscape quality. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version of this article (10.1007/s10980-020-01181-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Fine-grained assessment of greenspace satisfaction at regional scale using content analysis of social media and machine learning.

Assessing perceptions of green spaces is of considerable interest to developers aiming for sustainable urbanization. However, there are numerous challenges facing the development of a rapid, effective, and fine-grained method to assess large-scale greenspace perception. Survey-based studies of perception yielded detailed assessments of green spaces but lacked regional comparisons. The few big-data-based studies of greenspace perception lacked fine-grained explorations. Therefore, we used content analysis to interpret perception in two ways: perceived frequency and perceived satisfaction, including overall park satisfaction and satisfaction with individual landscape features. We analyzed social media posts about urban parks in Beijing, China. A structured lexicon was developed to capture detailed landscape features, and machine learning was employed to assess satisfaction levels. Both of these techniques performed well in interpreting greenspace satisfaction from volunteered textual comments. A detailed study of 50 parks demonstrated that overall park satisfaction was positive. Additionally, individual landscape features were more influential than frequency of landscape features in affecting satisfaction. Our framework confirmed the potential of online comments as complementary to traditional surveys in assessing greenspace perception, while enhancing our understanding of this perception on a regional scale. Practically, this study can facilitate sustainable policy-making regarding urban green spaces, specifically through offering a structured landscape-feature lexicon, rapid regional comparison of various parks, and an emphasis on quality rather than quantity of landscape features.

Landscape ecological concepts in planning: review of recent developments.

CONTEXT: Landscape ecology as an interdisciplinary science has great potential to inform landscape planning, an integrated, collaborative practice on a regional scale. It is commonly assumed that landscape ecological concepts play a key role in this quest. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the paper is to identify landscape ecological concepts that are currently receiving attention in the scientific literature, analyze the prevalence of these concepts and understand how these concepts can inform the steps of the planning processes, from goal establishment to monitoring. METHODS: We analyzed all empirical and overview papers that have been published in four key academic journals in the field of landscape ecology and landscape planning in the years 2015-2019 (n = 1918). Title, abstract and keywords of all papers were read in order to identify landscape ecological concepts. A keyword search was applied to identify the use of these and previously mentioned concepts in common steps of the planning cycle. RESULTS: The concepts Structure, Function, Change, Scale, Landscape as human experience, Land use, Landscape and ecosystem services, Green infrastructure, and Landscape resilience were prominently represented in the analyzed literature. Landscape ecological concepts were most often mentioned in context of the landscape analysis steps and least in context of goal establishment and monitoring. CONCLUSIONS: The current literature spots landscape ecological concepts with great potential to support landscape planning. However, future studies need to address directly how these concepts can inform all steps in the planning process. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version of this article (10.1007/s10980-021-01193-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Comparisons of Landscape Preferences through Three Different Perceptual Approaches.

In order to identify the effects and divergences of the different landscape perception approaches on landscape preference, this study investigated people's preferences for urban green spaces with different vegetation structures in the early spring through using three approaches, which were on-site survey, photo elicitation and VR technology. The results showed that: (a) There were significant differences among the three approaches for landscape preference, among which there was a significant difference between VR technology and the other two approaches, while no differences between on-site survey and photo elicitation were found. (b) The respondents showed significant differences in their preferences for the urban green spaces with the different vegetation structures through VR technology, and the semi-open green space received the highest preference score. (c) Whatever the approach employed, there were no significant differences in gender and professional background groups for landscape preference. (d) In the comparisons of the three different approaches, the respondents were more willing to choose physical recreational activities to be conducted in the early spring. Based on the above results, the three approaches of landscape perception were divergent and irreplaceable. It is, thus, suggested that the approach of landscape perception should be carefully selected for a specific landscape in a certain season, so as to provide a scientific basis for the evaluation of landscape perception and preference in the future.