Social Identity and Online Support Groups: A Qualitative Study with Family Caregivers.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to explore whether a sense of collective or shared group identity was developed in one established online social support group for family caregivers and, if so, what did group identification mean for the group members and how was this cultivated in the group. METHODS: Eighteen semi-structured interviews were carried out with members of a family caregiver online support group in Ireland. Inductive and deductive reflexive thematic analysis drawing on the social identity approach (SIA) generated four main themes and several related subthemes. RESULTS: The first main theme generated was The group are a Tribe and the Tribe gets it, with subthemes: Invisibility as a common experience, my Tribe understands I am more than just a carer and Just being part of the Tribe can be enough. The second main theme generated was the Tribe is a lifeline and life-changing, with related subthemes: Our connection relieves experiences of loneliness and social isolation and Sharing knowledge, experience and support made me feel visible. The third and fourth main themes generated were The leadership of group moderators helped create the Tribe identity and Lessons that can be learnt. These findings are discussed in relation to the social identity approach, social isolation and loneliness. CONCLUSIONS: We concluded that group identity can be cultivated through considered, active and balanced moderation, creating a safe, welcoming and supportive space where family caregivers are able to have fun and seek information, advice and emotional support, which helps relieve loneliness and social isolation.

When are intergroup attitudes judged as free speech and when as prejudice? A social identity analysis of attitudes towards immigrants.

Although anti-immigrant attitudes continue to be expressed around the world, identifying these attitudes as prejudice, truth or free speech remains contested. This contestation occurs, in part, because of the absence of consensually agreed-upon understandings of what prejudice is. In this context, the current study sought to answer the question, "what do people understand to be prejudice?" Participants read an intergroup attitude expressed by a member of their own group (an "in-group" member) or another group (an "out-group" member). This was followed by an interpretation of the attitude as either "prejudiced" or "free speech." This interpretation was also made by in-group or an out-group member. Subsequent prejudice judgements were influenced only by the group membership of the person expressing the initial attitude: the in-group member's attitude was judged to be less prejudiced than the identical attitude expressed by an out-group member. Participants' judgements of free speech, however, were more complex: in-group attitudes were seen more as free speech than out-group attitudes, except when an in-group member interpreted those attitudes as prejudice. These data are consistent with the Social Identity Approach to intergroup relations, and have implications for the processes by which intergroup attitudes become legitimised as free speech instead of prejudice.

Exploring nationality and social identity to explain attitudes toward conservation actions in the United States and Australia.

Understanding human attitudes toward wildlife management is critical to implementing effective conservation action and policy. Understanding the factors that shape public attitudes toward different wildlife management actions is limited, however, which can result in unpredictable public responses to interventions. We drew on comparisons between residents of 2 countries on separate continents to explore differences in attitudes toward wildlife management and determine factors important in shaping these attitudes. We surveyed representative publics via market research panels in Australia (n = 881 respondents) and the United States (n = 1287). We applied a social-identity approach and demography to identify factors that explained variance between responses about wildlife management. We compared responses between countries overall and within subgroups of respondents who strongly identified as environmentalists, animal rights activists, wildlife conservation advocates, and farmers. We created aggregate scores for the management-related response items per respondent and used regression analyses to identify the relative importance of country, identity, age, and gender in explaining variance between responses. These factors accounted for 15.3% of variance among responses. Australians overall were generally more accepting of lethal wildlife management actions than U.S. respondents. Differences in national attitudes reflected differences between United States and Australian wildlife management and policy, highlighting the importance of understanding social attitudes in shaping conservation policy. Identifying as a farmer followed by identifying as an animal rights activist most shaped attitudes toward wildlife management. Identity-related conflicts could be initiated or exacerbated by conservation interventions that fail to consider identity-related processes.

Exploración de la Nacionalidad y la Identidad Social para Explicar las Actitudes hacia las Acciones de Conservación en los Estados Unidos y en Australia Resumen El entendimiento de las actitudes humanas hacia el manejo de fauna es muy importante para la implementación efectiva de las acciones y las políticas de conservación. Sin embargo, la comprensión de los factores que forman las actitudes públicas hacia las diferentes acciones de manejo de fauna es limitada, lo que puede resultar en respuestas públicas impredecibles ante las intervenciones. Trabajamos con comparaciones entre residentes de dos países en continentes distintos para explorar las diferencias en actitudes hacia el manejo de fauna y para determinar los factores importantes que intervienen en la formación de estas actitudes. Encuestamos a ciudadanos representativos por medio de paneles de estudios de mercado en Australia (n = 881 respondientes) y en los Estados Unidos (n = 1287). Aplicamos una estrategia de identidad social y demografía para identificar los factores que explican la varianza entre las respuestas al manejo de fauna. Comparamos las respuestas entre ambos países en general y entre subgrupos de respondientes que se identificaron fervientemente como ambientalistas, activistas por los derechos de los animales, defensores de la conservación de fauna y agricultores. Creamos puntajes agregados por respondiente para las respuestas relacionadas al manejo y usamos análisis de regresión para identificar la importancia relativa del país, la identidad, la edad y el género para la explicación de la varianza entre las respuestas. Estos factores explicaron el 15.3% de la varianza entre las respuestas. Como generalidad, los australianos tuvieron una mayor aceptación de las acciones de manejo letal de fauna que los respondientes estadunidenses. Las diferencias en las actitudes nacionales reflejaron las diferencias entre las políticas y el manejo de fauna en los Estados Unidos y en Australia, lo que resalta la importancia del entendimiento de las actitudes sociales en la formación de políticas de conservación. La identidad que más influencia tuvo sobre las actitudes hacia el manejo de fauna fue la de agricultor, seguido de activista por los derechos de los animales. Los conflictos relacionados con la identidad podrían ser iniciados o agudizados por las intervenciones de conservación que omiten considerar los procesos relacionados con la identidad.

Athletes' Social Identities: Their Influence on Precompetitive Group-Based Emotions.

This research studied the influence of multiple social identities on the emotions that athletes felt toward their teammates/partners and opponents. Athletes (N = 714) from individual and team-based sports reported their identification both as athletes of the sport and as athletes of their club before reporting their precompetitive emotions. The results showed that these multiple social identities influenced precompetitive emotions toward different targets, with higher levels of sport identification associated with increased positive and decreased negative emotions toward opponents and higher levels of club identification associated with increased positive and decreased negative emotions toward teammates/partners, although increased club identification was also associated with more positive emotions toward opponents. These findings extend intergroup emotions theory by showing its suitability and applicability to face-to-face task-oriented teams in sport. Particularly, they highlight the importance of investigating the simultaneous level of multiple social identities, rather than only a dichotomic self-categorization, on group-based emotions experienced toward multiple targets.

Image and perception of physicians as barriers to inter-disciplinary cooperation? - the example of German occupational health physicians in the rehabilitation process: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: In the German rehabilitation system, primary care physicians (PCPs), occupational health physicians (OPs), and rehabilitation physicians (RPs) fulfill different distinct functions and roles. While effective cooperation can improve outcomes of rehabilitation, the cooperation between these groups of stakeholders has been criticized as lacking or insufficient. This article proposes an approach to understand the low levels of cooperation by examining the role of group perception and group identity in intra-professional cooperation as a barrier to cooperation between physicians in different roles. Group perception was evaluated in terms of (1) negative views about another group of medical specialists and (2) differences between the perception of members and non-members of a medical specialty group. To examine this issue, we focused on the role of OPs in the German rehabilitation process. METHODS: We implemented a qualitative study design with eight focus group discussions with PCPs, OPs, RPs, and patients (two focus group discussions per stakeholder group; 4-10 participants) and qualitative content analysis. We used the Social Identity Approach by Tajfel and Turner as a theoretical underpinning. RESULTS: While all protagonists reported a positive perception of their own professional group, we found numerous negative perceptions about other groups, especially regarding OPs. Negative perceptions of OPs included 1) apparent conflict of interest between employer and employee, 2) lack of commitment to patient outcomes, 3) lack of useful specialized knowledge which could have a bearing on rehabilitation outcomes, and 4) distrust on the part of their patients. We also found divergent perceptions regarding roles, responsibilities, and capabilities among the specialist groups. Both negative and conflicting perceptions about roles were characterized as barriers to cooperation by study participants. CONCLUSION: This example of cooperation between RPs, OPs, and PCPs suggests that negative and diverging perceptions about an out-group could create barriers in intra-professional and inter-disciplinary cooperation between physicians. These perspectives might also be useful in explaining problems at intersections between different specialties. We suggest examining the inter-group dimension of perception-based barriers to cooperation in future interventions to overcome problems caused by intra-professional and inter-disciplinary conflicts in addition to other barriers (i.e. organizational hurdles).

Acting One's Age in Physical Exercise: Do Perceived Age Norms Explain Autonomous Motivation Among Older Adults?

BACKGROUND: The social identity approach proposes that the more older adults identify with the social group of "older adults," the more they will conform to what they perceive as being normative exercising for their group. However, so far, it remains unclear why older adults adhere to these norms. OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated whether perceived exercise norms are associated with higher levels of autonomous motivation according to the self-determination theory and actual exercise participation. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey, either by regular mail or online, was conducted among 409 older adults in Flanders (Belgium). RESULTS: Our analyses revealed that older adults who perceived more positive older adult norms for exercising were more autonomously motivated to exercise. In explaining 24% of their exercise motivation, older adults' perceptions of the exercise norms for older adults predicted 6% of their exercise participation. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that social identity approach and self-determination theory can be meaningfully integrated.

We will be champions: Leaders' confidence in 'us' inspires team members' team confidence and performance.

The present research examines the impact of leaders' confidence in their team on the team confidence and performance of their teammates. In an experiment involving newly assembled soccer teams, we manipulated the team confidence expressed by the team leader (high vs neutral vs low) and assessed team members' responses and performance as they unfolded during a competition (i.e., in a first baseline session and a second test session). Our findings pointed to team confidence contagion such that when the leader had expressed high (rather than neutral or low) team confidence, team members perceived their team to be more efficacious and were more confident in the team's ability to win. Moreover, leaders' team confidence affected individual and team performance such that teams led by a highly confident leader performed better than those led by a less confident leader. Finally, the results supported a hypothesized mediational model in showing that the effect of leaders' confidence on team members' team confidence and performance was mediated by the leader's perceived identity leadership and members' team identification. In conclusion, the findings of this experiment suggest that leaders' team confidence can enhance members' team confidence and performance by fostering members' identification with the team.

What explains the well-being benefits of physical activity? A mixed-methods analysis of the roles of participation frequency and social identification.

OBJECTIVE: Physical activity in a social setting is said to be associated with well-being because it provides opportunities for participants to form social relationships. However, there are inconsistent findings regarding the well-being benefits of participating in physical activity with others. To address this inconclusive evidence, we draw on the social identity approach to health and well-being to examine whether (a) the frequency of physical activity participation in a social setting and (b) the degree of social identification associated with it, have different relationships with participants' well-being. METHODS: We implemented a two-phase, mixed-methods design with members of women's only fitness clubs in Japan. In Study 1, we collected survey responses about social identification, life satisfaction, and eudaimonic well-being from 1118 members. The survey data were combined with respondents' objective participation data from a membership database. In Study 2, we interviewed a sample of club members to understand how the nature of social relationships differed depending on the degree of their social identification. RESULTS: Study 1 found that social identification with a fitness club, but not the frequency of attending the club for physical activity, was positively associated with members' well-being. Study 2 revealed that members with high social identification experienced more affective relationships with other members than those with medium or low identification. CONCLUSIONS: Our research provides quantitative and qualitative evidence supporting the association between social identification and the well-being benefits of physical activity in a social setting. It confirms the predictions of the social identity approach to health and well-being, demonstrating that people enjoy well-being benefits from physical activity participation when it is internalized as a meaningful definition of self.

Social identity and health-related behavior: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

This paper examined the relationship between social identity and health-related behavior, exploring whether social identities are associated with multiple health-related behaviors or only specific ones, and whether this association varies on the type of social identity, the type of social identity measures or the expected relationship between identity and behavior. In a systematic review and meta-analysis we assessed whether the pattern of findings can be explained by the social identity approach. An extensive literature search was conducted in several databases including EBSCO-host and PubMed, using elaborate search terms related to social identity and health-related behavior. This resulted in 10728 potential articles, with 115 articles (with 248 effect sizes from 133 independent samples, N = 112.112) included in the meta-analysis. We found a small but positive overall association between social identification and health-related behavior, which was present for actual behavior, as well as for intention and attitudes. This association was stronger for health-related social identities, positive health-related behaviors, when the expected relationship was positive and when indirect social identity measures were used. However, not all findings could be explained by the social identity approach, indicating a need for further research to better understand the relationship between social identity and health-related behavior, in order to more effectively incorporate social identity into health interventions.

The identification environment matters: Students' social identification, perceived physical school environment, and anxiety - A cross-level interaction model.

The social identity approach to health argues that well-being depends on the psychosocial circumstances of the groups to which individuals belong. However, little is known about how the average level of identification in the group - 'the identification environment' - buffers the negative health consequences of stressors. We used multilevel modelling to investigate whether identification environment in a school modified the association between the students' perceptions of the quality of their school's physical environment and their reported levels of anxiety. In two representative samples of Finnish school students (N = 678 schools/71,392 students; N = 704 schools/85,989 students), weak identification environment was related to increased anxiety. In addition, in schools where identification environment was weaker, the student level relationship between perceived physical environment and anxiety was stronger, and students were more anxious. Our results provide evidence that identification environment needs to be considered when we analyse how group membership affects well-being.

Motivations to engage in collective action: A latent profile analysis of refugee supporters.

What motivates people to participate in collective action? Some actions such as symbolic or online actions are often critiqued as performative allyship, motivated by personal gain rather than genuine concern for the cause. We aim to adjudicate this argument by examining the quality of motivations for acting, drawing on the insights of self-determination theory and the social identity approach. Using latent profile analysis, we examined whether there are different types of supporters of refugees based on their underlying motives. In Study 1, we surveyed supporters of Syrian refugees from six nations (N = 936) and measured autonomous and controlled motivation, pro-refugee identification and collective action. In Study 2 (N = 1994), we surveyed supporters of Ukrainian refugees in Romania, Hungary and the UK. We found 4-5 profiles in each sample and consistently found that supporters with high autonomous motivation take more action than disengaged or ambivalent supporters (low/neutral on all motives). However, contrary to the tenets of self-determination theory, those high in both autonomous and controlled motives were the most engaged. We conclude that the most committed supporters are those with multiple motives, but further research is needed on the role of controlled motivation.

Street soccer and homelessness: Exploring social identities, health, and well-being.

Membership in social and physical activity groups has the potential to help people with a range of physical and mental health challenges. The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of members of a unique physical activity group: people who were formerly or currently homeless participating in a street soccer program in Western Canada. Ten participants in the Vancouver Street Soccer League (VSSL) were interviewed about the extent to which this program fostered a sense of community, social connectivity, and quality of life among people with experience of homelessness. Interviews were augmented with a Social Identity Mapping activity and observations from the first author who took part in weekly practice with the VSSL for over a year. The data were analysed using thematic analysis, in which four themes were developed to reflect the findings. These included (1) Coming together through soccer, (2) Dynamics motivating continued involvement in the league, (3) Leaders and leadership: Social influence in the league, and (4) The league and health outcomes. The findings provide insight into how a street soccer program which fostered shared social identity, psychological safety, friendly competition, and social support contributed to the well-being of people impacted by homelessness, various traumas, and marginalisation.

Team identification relates to lower burnout-Emotional and instrumental support as two different social cure mechanisms.

Team identification is associated with less exhaustion and disengagement through more social support and higher collective self-efficacy. However, previous studies did not distinguish between emotional and instrumental support, even though both forms of support may relate differently to collective self-efficacy. By distinguishing between both support forms, we expected an indirect effect-the 'supportive structure' mechanism-of team identification on burnout mediated via emotional support. For a second mechanism-the 'supportive action' mechanism-we expected an indirect effect serially mediated by instrumental support and collective self-efficacy. We tested our hypotheses among NT1  = 567 employees in a four-wave study with 3-month time lags between measurement points. Partially in line with our expectations, emotional support (T2) mediated the relation between team identification (T1) and disengagement (T4), but not emotional exhaustion (T4). Moreover, as expected, the results showed an indirect association between team identification (T1) and emotional exhaustion and disengagement (T4) via instrumental support (T2) and collective self-efficacy (T3). Accordingly, employees benefit from both support forms but through different mechanisms. We discuss our findings and implications for future research.

"Learning by osmosis": the transformative social identity journey of physiotherapists developing psychologically-informed practice, a reflexive thematic analysis.

BACKGROUND: Despite efforts to support physiotherapists in integrating psychosocial aspects of care to biological ones, clinical practice remains dominated by biomechanistic priorities. To facilitate change, attention and actions need to consider not only the individual level of the therapists but also the cultural and structural levels of the profession. How these multi-layered social dynamics shape practice have not previously been investigated. The Social Identity Approach (SIA) provides a relevant framework to this exploration. AIM: This study aimed to identify the social identity processes involved in the development of psychologically-informed physiotherapy (PIP) to understand how they may influence practice change. METHODS: Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted with self-identified psychologically-informed physiotherapists. A Reflexive Thematic Analysis informed by SIA principles enabled to consider meaning as the product of social processes. FINDINGS: The analysis of participants' experiences in moving from a primarily biomechanistic practice toward the integration of psychosocial aspects of health demonstrated: 1) a transformative "mind-blowing" identity journey; 2) a journey that is not made in isolation; and 3) where leadership matters. CONCLUSION: Changes in clinical practice involve dynamics at the collective level of the practice environment and of the physiotherapy profession itself, rather than solely at the individual level of clinicians. An understanding of these complex social processes at a managerial level could be important to better support leaders and clinicians in implementing PIP in clinical practice.

Climate distress and social identity: bringing theory to clinical practice.

Guidance for supporting individuals with climate distress often lacks a theoretical foundation to account for its social dimension. This paper argues for the value of the social identity approach (SIA) for understanding and supporting individuals with climate distress in clinic. Three aspects of climate distress are considered: social isolation, collective emotions, and climate action. It is posited that the SIA can guide interventions in a way that is tailored to the specific social dynamics entailed in each client's climate distress. The paper also considers how clinicians can weigh up the potential advantages and disadvantages of interventions that are commonly advised for these individuals, such as contact with nature and engaging in collective action. The author is a clinical psychologist and lecturer researching climate distress.

Perceptions of the Targets and Sources of COVID-19 Threat are Structured by Group Memberships and Responses are Influenced by Identification with Humankind.

The purpose of this study was to investigate which social groups are perceived as a threat target and which are perceived as a threat source during the COVID-19 outbreak. In a German sample (N = 1454) we examined perceptions of social groups ranging from those that are psychologically close and smaller (family, friends, neighbors) to those that are more distal and larger (people living in Germany, humankind). We hypothesized that psychologically closer groups would be perceived as less affected by COVID-19 as well as less threatening than more psychologically distal groups. Based on social identity theorizing, we also hypothesized that stronger identification with humankind would change these patterns. Furthermore, we explored how these threat perceptions relate to adherence to COVID-19 health guidelines. In line with our hypotheses, latent random-slope modelling revealed that psychologically distal and larger groups were perceived as more affected by COVID-19 and as more threatening than psychologically closer and smaller groups. Including identification with humankind as a predictor into the threat target model resulted in a steeper increase in threat target perception patterns, whereas identification with humankind did not predict differences in threat source perceptions. Additionally, an increase in threat source perceptions across social groups was associated with more adherence to health guidelines, whereas an increase in threat target perceptions was not. We fully replicated these findings in a subgroup from the original sample (N = 989) four weeks later. We argue that societal recovery from this and other crises will be supported by an inclusive approach informed by a sense of our common identity as human beings.

Growing leaders from below: Identity-based worker education and identity-leader ability among self-employed women in India.

Informal and unregulated work is the norm rather than the exception in emerging economies. This study was conducted in India where nine out of 10 women are occupied in informal, unregulated work, and are vulnerable to low-wages, exploitation, and interconnected cultural and social-economic injustices. The Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) and their education wing the Indian Academy of Self-Employed Women encourage their members to self-define as "self-employed workers" and facilitate identity-based worker education and leadership training. Drawing on insights from the Social Identity Approach to Learning and the New Psychology of Leadership this cross-sectional study (N = 300) explored if this shared social identity significantly predicted participants perceived identity-leadership ability. We further explored if this relationship was partially explained by SEWA norms, values, and beliefs, developed during learning, and measured as "awareness of gendered inequality", "injustice consciousness", and "collective efficacy". A parallel mediation analysis found a direct relationship between "self-employed women identity" and "identity-leader ability" and indirect relationships through "awareness of gendered inequality" and "collective efficacy". No indirect path was evident through "injustice consciousness". The theoretical and practical implications of an identity-based approach to worker education and leader training among vulnerable workers, are discussed.

A trouble shared is a trouble halved: The role of family identification and identification with humankind in well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered health-related anxiety in ways that undermine peoples' mental and physical health. Contextual factors such as living in a high-risk area might further increase the risk of health deterioration. Based on the Social Identity Approach, we argue that social identities can not only be local that are characterized by social interactions, but also be global that are characterized by a symbolic sense of togetherness and that both of these can be a basis for health. In line with these ideas, we tested how identification with one's family and with humankind relates to stress and physical symptoms while experiencing health-related anxiety and being exposed to contextual risk factors. We tested our assumptions in a representative sample (N = 974) two-wave survey study with a 4-week time lag. The results show that anxiety at Time 1 was positively related to stress and physical symptoms at Time 2. Feeling exposed to risk factors related to lower physical health, but was unrelated to stress. Family identification and identification with humankind were both negatively associated with subsequent stress and family identification was negatively associated with subsequent physical symptoms. These findings suggest that for social identities to be beneficial for mental health, they can be embodied as well as symbolic.

Does Fair Coach Behavior Predict the Quality of Athlete Leadership Among Belgian Volleyball and Basketball Players: The Vital Role of Team Identification and Task Cohesion.

A vast stream of empirical work has revealed that coach and athlete leadership are important determinants of sport teams' functioning and performance. Although coaches have a direct impact on individual and team outcomes, they should also strive to stimulate athletes to take up leadership roles in a qualitative manner. Yet, the relation between coach leadership behavior and the extent of high-quality athlete leadership within teams remains underexposed. Based on organizational justice theory and the social identity approach, the present research tested whether perceived justice of the coach positively predicts the quality of athlete leadership. Furthermore, we examined the role of group dynamic processes (i.e., team identification and task cohesion) within this relation. Belgian volleyball (N = 161) and basketball players (N = 78) were asked to rate the justice of their coach, their team identification, the task cohesion, and the athlete leadership quality in the team. Structural equation modeling indicated that coaches' perceived justice positively predicted the quality of athletes' leadership, and that this relation was established through three intermediate steps (i.e., from team identification to task cohesion, to athlete leadership quality). These results suggest that fair coach behavior does not only bridge the gap between leadership and followership, it also has the potential to improve the quality of athletes' leadership within sport teams. More specifically, findings suggest that coaches' perceived justice cultivates a shared social identity characterized by high levels of players' identification with their team, which in turn increased their perceptions of the team's task cohesion. Finally, this increased task cohesion encouraged the athlete leaders to demonstrate high-quality leadership.

Interactive effects of social network centrality and social identification on stress.

The present study aimed to integrate the social identity approach to health and well-being with social network analysis. Previous research on the effects of social network centrality on stress has yielded mixed results. Building on the social identity approach, we argued that these mixed results can be explained, in part, by taking into account the degree to which individuals identify with the social network. We hence hypothesized that the effects of social network centrality on stress are moderated by social identification. Using a full roster method, we assessed the social network of first-year psychology students right after the start of their study programme and three months later. The effects of network centrality (betweenness, closeness, eigenvector centrality) and social identification on stress were examined using structural equation models. As predicted, our results revealed a significant interaction between network centrality and social identification on stress: For weakly or moderately identified students, network centrality was positively related to stress. By contrast, for strongly identified students, network centrality was unrelated to stress. In conclusion, our results point to the perils of being well-connected yet not feeling like one belongs to a group.