RESOLUTION OF CALVARIAL HYPEROSTOSIS IN AFRICAN LION CUBS (PANTHERA LEO LEO) AFTER VITAMIN A SUPPLEMENTATION.

Two female (FL 1, FL 2) and one male (ML) 11-wk-old, intact, captive African lion cubs (Panthera leo leo) were presented with a history of mild vestibular signs. Initial serum vitamin A concentrations were low (140 nmol/L) for ML. Calvarial hyperostosis was confirmed using computed tomography (CT) of the head and cervical vertebrae in each cub. CT measurements were adapted in relation to the skull width. ML showed the most pronounced thickening of the tentorium cerebelli and occipital bone, represented by a tentorium cerebelli to skull width ratio (TCR) of 0.08 (FL 1: 0.06, FL 2: 0.05) and a basisphenoid to skull width ratio (BBR) of 0.07 (FL 1: 0.06, FL 2: 0.04). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed cerebellar herniation and cervical intramedullary T2-weighted hyperintensity from C1, extending caudally for at least two cervical vertebrae in all cubs. Treatment was initiated with subcutaneous vitamin A supplementation and feeding of whole carcasses. Improvement in ataxia was noticed 3 wk later. Follow-up CT and MRI examinations were performed in ML after 3 and 8 mon. The affected bones appeared slightly less thickened and TCR and BBR had decreased to 0.05 after 3 mon. The cerebellum remained mildly herniated, accompanied by amelioration of cervical T2w hyperintensities. After 8 mon, evaluation and diagnostic imaging revealed further improvement regarding the neurologic status and measurements (TCR 0.05, BBR 0.04) despite persistence of a subtle cerebellar herniation. In conclusion, bone remodeling and improvement in clinical signs may be achievable in young lion cubs presented with calvarial hyperostosis and may be attributable to high-dose vitamin A supplementation.

Amniotic membrane grafting for traumatic complete spectaculectomy and keratomalacia in a Boelen's python (Simalia boeleni).

OBJECTIVE: To describe the surgical repair of traumatic complete spectaculectomy and keratomalacia in a snake. ANIMALS: A 10.5-year-old, female, Boelen's python (Simalia boeleni) was presented with iatrogenic, near-complete spectaculectomy associated with bacterial keratitis, keratomalacia, and hypopyon. PROCEDURES: Corneal samples for cytological evaluation and bacterial culture were collected. Following medical stabilization of the bacterial keratitis, a double-layered dry amniotic membrane graft was placed. The first amniotic membrane layer was placed over the cornea with the edges tucked under the peripheral remnants of the spectacle and secured in place with fibrin glue. The second amniotic membrane layer was placed over the entirety of the spectacle remnant and secured in place with a combination of fibrin glue and sutures. Topical and systemic antimicrobials, topical ophthalmic lubricants, and systemic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory therapy were administered postoperatively. RESULTS: Heterophilic keratitis was identified by cytology and Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus sciuri were cultured from the corneal samples. The amniotic membrane grafts remained in place for several weeks. At 4 months postoperatively, the spectacle was completely regenerated, the subspectacular space restored, and the cornea was transparent. Spectacular vascularization and fibrosis then slowly cleared over the following 6 months. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Amniotic membrane grafting with fibrin glue is a relatively simple and effective surgical method to reconstruct extensive defects in the reptilian spectacle and to assist in the management of bacterial keratitis associated with spectacle avulsion.

Melting corneal ulcers (keratomalacia) in dogs: A 5-year clinical and microbiological study (2014-2018).

OBJECTIVES: To identify bacterial microorganisms associated with canine keratomalacia, review their antimicrobial sensitivity, and evaluate clinical outcomes compared to results of microbial culture. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of clinical records of dogs diagnosed with a melting corneal ulcer presented to a referral hospital in Hertfordshire, UK between 2014 and 2018. RESULTS: One hundred and ten melting corneal ulcers were sampled in 106 dogs. The most common pure bacterial isolate was Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n = 26) followed by ß-hemolytic Streptococcus (n = 12). Melting corneal ulcers that cultured coagulase-positive Staphylococcus, coliform bacteria, Pasteurella multocida, Enterococcus, and Streptococcus viridans presented in smaller numbers and were analyzed together (n = 16). Multiple cultures were identified in nine cases (n = 9). Forty-seven cultures yielded no bacterial growth (n = 47). The susceptibility to fluoroquinolones remained high with the exception of ß-hemolytic Streptococci. There was no significant difference in the ulcer severity at presentation in regard to the cultured bacteria. Overall, 63 eyes (57%) received surgical grafting in addition to medical treatment. In 14 cases (13%), the progression of corneal melting despite medical ± surgical treatment resulted in enucleation. Fifty-seven percent (8/14) of the enucleated eyes cultured pure Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates. In contrast, all ß-hemolytic Streptococcus-associated ulcers healed. CONCLUSIONS: The most common bacterial species associated with canine keratomalacia were Pseudomonas aeruginosa and ß-hemolytic Streptococcus. Because of the variation in antibacterial sensitivity between these two species, bacterial culture and sensitivity testing should be performed in all dogs presenting with keratomalacia. Melting corneal ulcers associated with pure Pseudomonas infection were significantly more likely to result in globe loss than melting corneal ulcers associated with other cultures.

Dietary vitamin A deficiency reduces growth performance, immune function of intestine, and alters tight junction proteins of intestine for juvenile hybrid grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus ♀ × Epinephelus lanceolatus ♂).

This study was carried out to investigate the effects of dietary vitamin A (VA) on growth performance, antioxidant capacity, digestion, intestinal immune response, and mRNA expression of intestinal tight junction proteins for juvenile hybrid grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus ♀ × Epinephelus lanceolatus ♂). Six isonitrogenous and isolipidic experimental diets were formulated to obtain VA levels (317, 1136, 2038, 4142, 7715, 15204 IU/kg diet, respectively). The triplicate groups of fish (average weight of 9.01 ± 0.27 g) were fed twice daily (8:00 and 16:00) for 7 weeks. Based on the broken-line analysis model of WG and LYZ activity, the dietary VA requirement of hybrid grouper were estimated to be 2688.58 and 4096.36 IU/kg diet. The results showed that VA deficiency or excess could reduce Weight gain, specific growth rate, and protein efficiency ratio, and increase feed conversion ratio and hepatosomatic index (P < 0.05). In addition, VA deficiency could reduce the serum activities of acid phosphatase (ACP), superoxide dismutase, and total antioxidant capacity and increase the malondialdehyde content (P < 0.05). VA deficiency also could reduce intestinal activities of ACP, alkaline phosphatase, lysozyme, complement 3, complement 4 contents, and activities of alpha-amylase, lipase, and trypsin (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, VA deficiency could reduce villus height in proximal intestine (PI) and mid intestine (MI), as well as muscle thickness in PI and distal intestine (DI) (P < 0.05). Moreover, VA deficiency could down-regulated antimicrobial peptides (ß-defensin, Hepcidin [not in MI and DI], Epinecidin), anti-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin 10 and transforming growth factor ß1 [not in DI]), tight junction proteins (occluding and claudin3) mRNA levels in the PI, MI and DI, and up-regulated pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor α [not in MI] and interleukin 1ß [not in MI]), signaling molecules c-Rel and p65 (P < 0.05). Collectively, VA deficiency could reduce growth performance because of a negative effect on intestinal health by depressing digestive abilities, intestinal morphology, immunity and tight junction function in the intestine.

Vitamin A deficiency impairs intestinal physical barrier function of fish.

The present study was the first to investigate the effects of dietary vitamin A (VA) on the intestinal physical barrier function associated with oxidation, antioxidant system, apoptosis and cell-cellular tight junction (TJ) in the proximal (PI), mid (MI) and distal (DI) intestines of young grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). Fish were fed graded levels of dietary VA for 10 weeks, and then a challenge test using an injection of Aeromonas hydrophila was conducted for 14 days. Results indicated that dietary VA deficiency caused oxidative damage to fish intestine partly by the reduced non-enzymatic antioxidant components glutathione (GSH) and VA contents as well as reduced antioxidant enzyme activities [not including manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD)]. Further results observed that the decreased antioxidant enzyme activities by VA deficiency were partly related to the down-regulation of their corresponding mRNA levels which were regulated by the down-regulation of NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) mRNA levels and up-regulation of kelch-like-ECH-associated protein (Keap1a) (rather than Keap1b) mRNA levels in three intestinal segments of fish. Meanwhile, VA deficiency up-regulated the mRNA levels of the apoptosis signalling [caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9 (rather than caspase-7)] associated with the inhibition of the target of rapamycin (TOR) signalling pathway in three intestinal segments of fish. Additionally, VA deficiency decreased the mRNA levels of TJ complexes [claudin-b, claudin-c, claudin-3, claudin-12, claudin-15a, occludin and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) in the PI, MI and DI, as well as claudin-7 and claudin-11a in the MI and DI] linked to the up-regulation of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) signalling. These results suggested that VA deficiency impaired structural integrity in three intestinal segments of fish. Meanwhile, excessive VA also showed similar negative effects on these indexes. Taken together, the current study firstly demonstrated that VA deficiency impaired physical barrier functions associated with impaired antioxidant capacity, aggravated cell apoptosis and disrupted TJ complexes in the PI, MI and DI, but different segments performed different actions in fish. Based on protecting fish against protein oxidation, the optimal VA levels for grass carp were estimated to be 2622 IU/kg diet.

Vitamin A and its metabolic pathway play a determinant role in high-fructose-induced triglyceride accumulation of the visceral adipose depot of male Wistar rats.

Here, we tested a hypothesis that vitamin A and/or its metabolic pathways are involved in the high-fructose-mediated alteration in adipose tissue biology. For this purpose, weanling male Wistar rats were provided with one of the following diets: control (C), control with vitamin A deficiency (C-VAD), high fructose (HFr), and HFr with VAD (HFr-VAD) for 16 weeks, except that half of the C-VAD diet-fed rats were shifted to HFr diet (C-VAD(s)HFr), after 8-week period. Compared with control, feeding of HFr diet significantly increased the triglyceride content (P ≤ .01) and thus adipocyte size (hypertrophy) (P ≤ .001) in visceral adipose depot; retroperitoneal white adipose tissue (RPWAT) and these changes were corroborated with de novo lipogenesis, as evidenced by the increased glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity (P ≤ .01) and up-regulation of lipogenic pathway transcripts, fructose transporter, and aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 A1. On the contrary, the absence of vitamin A in the HFr diet (HFr-VAD) failed to exert these changes; however, it induced adipocyte hyperplasia. Further, vitamin A deficiency-mediated changes were reversed by replenishment, as evident from the group that was shifted from C-VAD to HFr diet. In conclusion, vitamin A and its metabolic pathway play a key determinant role in the high-fructose-induced triglyceride accumulation and adipocyte hypertrophy of visceral white adipose depot. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: Here, we report the metabolic impact of high-fructose feeding under vitamin A-sufficient and vitamin A-deficient conditions. Feeding of high-fructose diet induced triglyceride accumulation and adipocyte hypertrophy of the visceral white adipose depots. These changes corroborated with augmented expression of vitamin A and lipid metabolic pathway genes. Contrarily, absence of vitamin A in the high-fructose diet did not elicit such responses, while vitamin A replenishment reversed the changes exerted by vitamin A deficiency. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the role of vitamin A and its metabolic pathway in the high-fructose-induced triglyceride synthesis and its accumulation in visceral adipose depot and thus provide a new insight and scope to understand these nutrients interaction in clinical conditions.

Evaluation of ß-carotene assimilation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius).

Although leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) are commonly kept under human care, their vitamin requirements are largely unknown. Many invertebrate preys display a low vitamin A concentration; thus, gut-loading insects with vitamin A or carotenoids is a common practice. The objective of this prospective experimental study was to investigate whether dietary supplementation with ß-carotene, including prey gut-loading, leads to sufficient vitamin A hepatic storage and prevents epithelial squamous metaplasia development in leopard geckos. Ten clinically healthy female leopard geckos were randomly divided in two groups with various supplementations: a group receiving vitamin A supplementation and a group receiving ß-carotene. Insects were gut-loaded continuously with a supplement containing vitamin A or ß-carotene, depending on the group. Oral supplementation with cod liver oil or carrot juice was administered weekly to each lizard from "vitamin A group" and "carotenoid group" respectively. After 10 weeks of supplementation, surgical hepatic biopsies were obtained in three geckos of each group while the two remaining geckos were euthanized to undergo complete necropsy. Hepatic vitamin A concentration was determined for each lizard (n = 10) by ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Histopathology revealed hepatocellular vacuolization and vitellogenic follicles in five females. Epithelial squamous metaplasia was not observed in any of the geckos. Hepatic vitamin A concentration was significantly higher in the carotenoid-supplemented group than in the vitamin A-supplemented group (p = 0.03). Our results suggest that in leopard geckos, dietary supplementation with ß-carotene allows sufficient vitamin A hepatic storage.

SUSPECTED HYPOVITAMINOSIS A-ASSOCIATED SALT GLAND ADENITIS IN NORTHERN ROCKHOPPER PENGUINS ( EUDYPTES MOSELEYI).

Supraorbital salt-excreting glands are present in at least 10 avian orders and are largest in marine species, including penguins. Diseases of the avian salt gland have been described infrequently. From September 2015, five captive northern rockhopper penguins ( Eudyptes moseleyi) were presented over a 6-wk period for unilateral or bilateral supraorbital swellings. In September 2016, two cases recurred and two additional cases were identified. Histopathology demonstrated salt gland adenitis with extensive squamous metaplasia. Blood plasma testing demonstrated marked vitamin A and E deficiencies within the colony. Prolonged frozen storage of feed-fish was implicated as a cause of vitamin depletion; reducing storage times and addition of dietary supplementation prevented recurrence.

Porcine urinary bladder extracellular matrix grafts (ACell Vet® Corneal Discs) for keratomalacia in 17 equids (2012-2013).

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical course, outcomes, and complications associated with use of commercially available porcine urinary bladder extracellular matrix (ECM) grafts (ACell Vet(®) Corneal Discs) in equid patients with keratomalacia, and to evaluate the efficacy of ECM grafts as a viable alternative to other biomaterials for corneal grafting in equid patients. ANIMALS: Sixteen horses and one donkey (17 eyes) with unilateral keratomalacia severe enough to warrant surgical repair between August 2012 and September 2013. PROCEDURE: Retrospective medical record review to identify equid patients meeting inclusion criteria of (i) diagnosis with keratomalacia severe enough to warrant surgical repair and (ii) surgical repair with an extracellular matrix graft. RESULTS: Eleven geldings, four mares, and two colts met inclusion criteria. Patients averaged 9 years of age. Twelve of 17 eyes (71%) were considered infected based on either corneal cytology (10/17, or 59%) or corneal culture (12/17, or 71%) positive for bacteria (8/17, or 47%) or fungi (9/17, or 53%). At the time topical medications were discontinued, 16 eyes (94%) were visual. One operated eye ruptured 5 days postoperatively and was enucleated. Keratouveitis developed in 14/14 eyes that underwent regular examinations approximately 2 weeks postoperatively which responded to systemic nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Extracellular matrix grafts may be a viable alternative to other biomaterials for corneal grafting in equids. Advantages include commercial availability and shelf storage.

Corneal collagen cross-linking as treatment for infectious and noninfectious corneal melting in cats and dogs: results of a prospective, nonrandomized, controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: UV-A/Riboflavin cross-linking of corneal collagen fibers (CXL) is a highly promising therapy for corneal melting in humans. A prospective interventional, nonrandomized, controlled study was conducted to compare the stabilizing effect of CXL treatment on melting keratitis in dogs and cats and the complication rate of CXL to those of standardized intensive medical treatment. PROCEDURES: Forty-nine eyes with melting keratitis were included in the study between October 2009 and October 2012. All eyes were treated according to the same medical treatment protocol. Nineteen eyes were CXL-treated, and 30 eyes were not. Follow-up included slit-lamp examination, fluorescein staining, ulcer size measurement, stromal stability evaluation, photographic documentation, and documentation of complications. RESULTS: Five of 19 eyes in the CXL group and 9/30 eyes in the control group required rescue stabilization due to continued melting. Seven of the nine control group corneas stabilized after rescue CXL treatment. At initial presentation, the ulcers in the canine CXL group were significantly deeper and larger than in the control group. Ulcer deepening during follow-up was more pronounced in the canine control group than in the canine CXL group. CXL treatment-related complications were not observed. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the similar failure rates in the control and CXL treatment groups despite the poorer initial situation in the CXL group, the tendency for the ulcers in the control group to deepen and the stabilization of all corneas receiving CXL rescue treatment, we believe that CXL has its place as an adjunctive therapy for melting keratitis in veterinary ophthalmology.

Nutrition and health in amphibian husbandry.

Amphibian biology is intricate, and there are many inter-related factors that need to be understood before establishing successful Conservation Breeding Programs (CBPs). Nutritional needs of amphibians are highly integrated with disease and their husbandry needs, and the diversity of developmental stages, natural habitats, and feeding strategies result in many different recommendations for proper care and feeding. This review identifies several areas where there is substantial room for improvement in maintaining healthy ex situ amphibian populations specifically in the areas of obtaining and utilizing natural history data for both amphibians and their dietary items, achieving more appropriate environmental parameters, understanding stress and hormone production, and promoting better physical and population health. Using a scientific or research framework to answer questions about disease, nutrition, husbandry, genetics, and endocrinology of ex situ amphibians will improve specialists' understanding of the needs of these species. In general, there is a lack of baseline data and comparative information for most basic aspects of amphibian biology as well as standardized laboratory approaches. Instituting a formalized research approach in multiple scientific disciplines will be beneficial not only to the management of current ex situ populations, but also in moving forward with future conservation and reintroduction projects. This overview of gaps in knowledge concerning ex situ amphibian care should serve as a foundation for much needed future research in these areas.

Serum and hepatic vitamin A levels in captive and wild marine toads (Bufo marinus).

The captive breeding program for the endangered Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne [Bufo] lemur) has been hampered by an undiagnosed condition called "Brown Skin Disease" (BSD). Toads develop widespread skin darkening, skin thickening and abnormal shedding and eventually succumb to a chronic loss of viability. This project evaluated the marine toad (Bufo marinus) as a model for the PRCT, examining vitamin A deficiency as a potential cause of BSD. Wild caught marine toads had significantly higher liver vitamin A concentrations (61.89 ± 63.49 µg/g) than captive born marine toads (0.58 ± 0.59 µg/g); P<0.001). A significant difference in serum vitamin A concentration was found between the captive and wild caught toads (P=0.013) and between the low vitamin A-fed and wild caught toads (P=0.004), when controlling for liver vitamin A concentrations. After captive toads were treated with topical and/or oral vitamin A, their hepatic vitamin A concentrations were similar to those of the wild toads, averaging 48.41 ± 37.03 µg/g. However, plasma vitamin A concentrations pre- and post-vitamin A supplementation did not differ statistically. We concluded that plasma vitamin A concentrations do not provide a linear indication of liver/body vitamin A status, and that both topical and oral supplementation with an oil-based vitamin A formulation can increase liver stores in amphibians. No evidence of BSD or other signs of deficiency were noted in the marine toads, although this feeding trial was relatively short (127 days). To date, clinical, pathological and research findings do not support vitamin A deficiency as a primary factor underlying BSD.

Hypovitaminosis A coupled to secondary bacterial infection in beef cattle.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin A is essential for normal growth, development, reproduction, cell proliferation, cell differentiation, immune function and vision. Hypovitaminosis A can lead to a series of pathological damage in animals. This report describes the case of hypovitaminosis A associated with secondary complications in calves. CASE PRESENTATION: From February to March in 2011, 2-and 3-month old beef calves presented with decreased eyesight, apparent blindness and persistent diarrhea occurred in a cattle farm of Hubei province, China. Based on history inspection and clinical observation, we made a tentative diagnosis of hypovitaminosis A. The disease was confirmed as a congenital vitamin A deficiency by determination of the concentrations of vitamin A in serum and feed samples. Furthermore, pathological and microbiological examination showed that the disease was associated with pathogenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) infection and mucosal barriers damage in intestines. The corresponding treatments were taken immediately, and the disease was finally under control for a month. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first report of hypovitaminosis A coupled to secondary infection of E. coli in beef cattle, advancing our knowledge of how vitamin A affects infection and immunity in animals. This study could also be contributed to scientific diagnosis and treatments of complex hypovitaminosis A in cattle.

Needle biopsy for hepatic vitamin A levels in lions (Panthera leo).

Hypovitaminosis A (HA)-related skull malformations resulting in neurologic abnormalities and death have been, and still are, reported in captive lions (Panthera leo) worldwide. Liver vitamin A (VA) concentration is the most reliable indicator of animals' VA status, and its assessment is essential in prevention and treatment of HA in lions. A percutaneous needle liver biopsy using high-performance liquid chromatography ultraviolet retinoid analysis for VA concentration measurement was validated. It was first assessed in vitro using chicken liver. Later, the safety and feasibility of ultrasound-guided percutaneous needle liver biopsy was assessed in living lions. Hepatic VA concentrations in lion liver were measured using the above laboratory method. Mean chicken hepatic VA concentration in needle biopsy (NB) and wedge biopsy (WB) of the same liver lobes were 108.66 and 60.89 microg/g wet tissue, respectively, and were significantly (P = 0.03) correlated (r = 0.74). The calculated linear regression for predicting VA concentration in WB using NB VA for chicken liver was 25.194 + 0.3234x NB (microg/g). Four ultrasound-guided percutaneous needle liver biopsies were obtained from each of the four lions under general anesthesia. Mean hepatic VA concentration was 8.25 microg/g wet tissue (range 1.43-25.29 microg/g). Mean serum VA concentration, measured in these four lions was 1,011.1 nmol/L with a standard deviation of 337.91 nmol/L (range 590.26-1,077.2 nmol/L). The lions recovered uneventfully, and no complications were observed during a 4-yr follow-up period. In conclusion, the percutaneous needle liver biopsy technique is a reliable, practical, safe tool for obtaining liver tissue samples antemortem for assessment of the VA status in lions and can be used in future studies.

360-degree conjunctival grafting for management of diffuse keratomalacia in a dog.

We present a report describing use of a 360-degree conjunctival graft for management of progressive keratomalacia refractory to medical treatment in a 5-month-old American Cocker Spaniel. In the dog of this report, the extension of melting to nearly the entire corneal surface limited surgical options. Following surgery and later resection of the graft, the patient is visual with minimal corneal opacity. Numerous corneal grafting techniques have been described in companion animals, but require special materials and may not be possible when melting is extensive. Although older animals or animals with additional corneal pathology may have less ideal outcomes in terms of corneal clarity than the patient of this report, we believe that 360-degree conjunctival grafting offers a viable and cost-effective option for management of cases with extensive keratomalacia that may otherwise have resulted in enucleation.

Vitamin A deficiency and hepatic retinol levels in sea otters, Enhydra lutris.

Vitamin A deficiency has rarely been reported in captive or free-ranging wildlife species. Necropsy findings in two captively housed southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) included irregular thickening of the calvaria characterized by diffuse hyperostoses on the internal surface. One animal also had moderate squamous metaplasia of the seromucinous glands of the nose. There was no measurable retinol in the liver of either sea otter. For comparison, hepatic retinol concentration was determined for 23 deceased free-ranging southern and northern (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) sea otters from California and Alaska. Free-ranging otters were found to have similar hepatic retinol concentrations (316 +/- 245 mg/kg wet weight) regardless of their location and subspecies. All of these values were significantly higher than the levels in the affected animals. Consumption of a diet with very low vitamin A concentrations and noncompliance in daily supplementation are hypothesized as the causes of vitamin A deficiency in these two sea otters.

Vitamin A deficiency and its treatment in captive Sunda pangolins.

The high incidence of disease in captive pangolins is a major obstacle in pangolin-conservation breeding programs. Therefore, elucidating pangolins' susceptibility to disease is the key to conservation progress. At the Pangolin Research Base for Artificial Rescue and Conservation Breeding of South China Normal University (PRB-SCNU), vitamin A deficiency was diagnosed in 14 captive Sunda pangolins. Typical eye signs included lacrimal eyes, keratopathy and a blank, milky orb. The afflicted pangolins were treated with vitamins A and D for 15-30 days; all individuals recovered. We report the detection and treatment of vitamin A deficiency in captive Sunda pangolins at the PRB-SCNU. Our results could provide guidance for the future prevention and treatment of vitamin A deficiency and associated diseases in pangolin species, both to reduce the incidence of these diseases in captive pangolins and to aid conservation efforts.

A comparison of oral and topical vitamin A supplementation in African foam-nesting frogs (Chiromantis xerampelina).

Vitamin A is essential for a variety of functions, including cellular differentiation, morphogenesis, growth, vision, immune response, and reproduction. A captive population of African foam-nesting frogs (Chiromantis xerampelina) with a known history of vitamin A deficiency had higher than expected incidence of sudden death, bacterial osteomyelitis, and stunted growth. Due to the high prevalence and untreatable nature of the diseases in the population, euthanasia of the population was recommended. Before euthanasia, the population was entered into a study to compare oral dietary supplementation of vitamin A to topical treatment with water-miscible vitamin A palmitate (AQUASOL A Parenteral, Mayne Pharma Inc., Paramus, New Jersey 07652, U.S.A.). Eighty-four frogs, weighing 2-7 g, were divided into a control and three treatment groups of 21 frogs per group, with normalized weight distribution. The control group received standard daily nutrition of crickets dusted with a supplement containing 342,000 international units (IU) vitamin A/kg. The treatment groups consisted of oral supplementation with crickets dusted with a fortified supplement containing 822,510 IU vitamin A/kg; topical vitamin A palmitate 50 IU every other day; and topical vitamin A palmitate 50 IU once a week. After 30 days, all frogs were euthanized, and 12 frogs from each group were analyzed for whole-body vitamin A levels. The control and treatment groups 1, 2, and 3 had average whole-body vitamin A levels of 1371.4 IU/kg (SE 284.4), 908.7 IU/kg (SE 186.5), 6385.9 IU/kg (SE 675.9), and 3521.8 IU/kg (SE 575.1), respectively. These results suggest that oral supplementation using a product high in vitamin A may be ineffective at raising whole-body vitamin A levels above those achieved with standard nutrition. Topical administration of vitamin A on an every other day and once a week dosing schedule achieved levels 4.5- and 2.5-fold higher than standard nutrition, respectively.

Outcome of medical therapy for keratomalacia in dogs.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the clinical and visual outcomes following intensive medical therapy for keratomalacia in dogs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Medical records were screened to identify dogs with corneal ulcers and keratomalacia. All patients were given the same topical treatment protocol with frequent administrations of tobramycin in combination with equine serum. Surgical treatment during the first 15 days of follow-up was considered as medical treatment failure. RESULTS: We report on 57 ulcers with keratomalacia from 53 dogs. Medical treatment was successful in 31 of 57 ulcers with a median healing time of 5 days (range 2 to 15 days). At 60 days after epithelialisation, 14/15 medically-treated eyes were visual. In one case, corneal perforation was observed 1 month after healing and required surgical stabilisation. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Intensive medical therapy has the potential to achieve healing of some ulcers with keratomalacia. Surgical stabilisation in response to progression of stromal loss was required in less than half of the cases.

Aeromonas species associated with necrotizing enteritis and septicemia in an adult male ostrich (Struthio camelus).

A deceased 10-yr-old male ostrich was diagnosed with severe necrotizing enteritis and septicemia. The bird was inappetent for 3 wk and had neurologic signs 2 days prior to death. Macroscopically, no significant lesions were noted aside from congestion of the liver, kidneys, and spleen. Histopathology revealed severe fibrinonecrotic enteritis,associated with large numbers of gram-negative bacteria, multifocal fibrinoid necrosis in portal arteries, accumulation of fibrin in hepatic sinusoids, myocardial degeneration, and necrosis. There was also squamous metaplasia in the glands of the esophagus and external ears. A gram-negative rod was isolated in pure culture from intestine, liver, lungs, and trachea and identified as an Aeromonas species. The concentration of vitamin A in the liver was extremely low. The lesions seen in the intestine and liver and the isolation of an Aeromonas sp. from various tissues strongly suggest that this bacterium was the cause of the necrotizing enteritis, septicemia, and death of this ostrich. Vitamin A deficiency might have predisposed the bird to the Aeromonas infection.