Review of identification and traceability legislation for pigs in Australia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess Australia's capability to trace pig movements in the event of an exotic disease outbreak by highlighting the commonalities and inconsistencies between the various state and territory legislations in defining how pig producers are located; their pigs are identified; and whether movement records are required post-farm gate. PROCEDURE: A review of the identification and traceability legislation applicable to pigs in Australia was undertaken over a 6 month period. The appropriate legislative Acts and Regulations were downloaded from the Australasian Legal Information Institute internet site (http://www.austlii.edu.au/) and reviewed. RESULTS: The Australian pig industry currently uses the branding method (tattooing) to identify pigs for sale or slaughter, with each state responsible for its own pig identification and movement control systems. Areas of concern identified included inconsistencies with the minimum weight or age of pigs that require identification; discrepancies between methods of tattoo registration and shortfalls in documentation for recording pig movements. CONCLUSION: Our findings highlight the flaws in Australia's current state legislative Acts and Regulations for identifying pigs and tracking their movements, which compromise the ability of jurisdictions to meet the endorsed National Performance Standards. Improvements in these areas will enhance security to the pig and other livestock industries in the event of future exotic disease outbreaks.

Tattooing Various Combinations of Ears, Tail, and Toes to Identify Mice Reliably and Permanently.

Uniquely identifying research animals is a widespread and essential procedure. Potential disadvantages of commonly used identification methods such as toe clipping, ear punching, and ear tagging include tissue loss and adverse effects in physiologic homeostasis and animal behavior. In addition, the labels produced by using these methods can become unreadable, potentially leading to misidentification. In this study, we proposed a combined approach involving ear, tail, and toe tattooing that can be used to permanently identify mice regardless of their age. Four groups (neonatal and adult C57BL/6J [black] and CD1 [white] mice) were used. Single- or 2-color tattooing (ear, tail, or toe or combinations thereof) was performed to identify a defined or unlimited number of mice, respectively. Tail tattooing using both green and red pastes was suitable for identifying white-haired neonatal mice as early as postnatal day 1, whereas toe tattooing with green paste was an effective alternative approach for labeling black-haired mouse pups. In comparison, single-color (green) or 2-color (green and red) ear tattooing identified both white and black adult mice older than 3 wk. Ear tattooing can be adapted to labeling an unlimited number of adult mice by adding the cage number. We conclude that tattooing various combinations of the ears, tail, and toes provides an easy and permanent approach for identifying mice of all ages with minimal disturbance to the animals.

Skin tumours in cattle and sheep after freeze- or heat-branding.

This article describes the occurrence of carcinogenic epidermal neoplasia (papillomas and squamous cell carcinoma) at the sites of tattooing with liquid nitrogen in dairy cattle, and squamous cell carcinoma at the sites of freeze- or heat-branding in beef cattle and sheep.

Differences in second-intention wound healing between horses and ponies: macroscopic aspects.

Second-intention healing of deep wounds was studied in 5 horses and 5 ponies. Standardised wounds were created on the distal limbs and hind quarters. Wounds on the metatarsi extended onto the metatarsal bone; the depth of the wounds in the femoral biceps muscle was 18 mm. The wound margins were marked by tattoos. Photographs were taken at weekly intervals to determine the wound area. The relative contribution of contraction and epithelialisation to wound closure was quantified by means of the tattoos. Swelling of the limbs was measured; and regularity and aspect of the granulation tissue were semi-quantitatively scored. Second-intention wound healing occurred significantly faster in ponies than in horses, and muscle wounds healed significantly faster than metatarsal wounds. These marked differences reflected the greater contribution of contraction to wound healing. Moreover, demarcation was seen earlier and a healthy granulation bed developed more rapidly in ponies, whereas in horses the granulation tissue remained irregular and purulent for longer. Healing of the metatarsal wounds of horses differed markedly from that of all other wounds: these wounds increased to almost twice their original size in the first 2 weeks, exuberant granulation tissue was persistent, epithelialisation started later, and contraction played a minor role in wound closure. Limb swelling was greater in horses than in ponies. Periosteal new bone formation was more extensive, and was active over a longer period in the metatarsal bones of horses than of ponies. From this study it is concluded that second-intention healing of deep wounds occurs faster in ponies than in horses. This difference can be largely attributed to a more pronounced and faster wound contraction in ponies than in horses. Therefore, attempts to improve second-intention wound healing in clinical practice should be directed at stimulation of wound contraction.

Traceability of domestic carnivores in France.

The traceability of domestic carnivores facilitates the monitoring of such animals for health purposes and for the management of suspected contagious diseases. A traceability system can also assist in the detection of fraud, lost or stolen animals, and in finding owners. To be effective, a system for the ongoing monitoring of these animals and their movements is required. Marking domestic carnivores is insufficient; a reliable identification system, with adequate guarantees of functioning, must include procedures to monitor the assignment of identification numbers, the marking methods (tattooing or electronic identification), in addition to the printing, issuing and registration of identification cards and the computerised management of data regarding the animals and changes of address or owner. The equipment used in the identification procedure must be well understood and employed correctly so that the identity of the animal is clear to all and verifiable by the appropriate authorities. The equipment must therefore be subject to approval, and must meet pre-defined specifications. For these reasons, France has adopted certain measures, including the establishment of a national register, the compulsory compliance with ISO 11784 and 11785 standards, and a transponder identification number including the country code (250 for France), the species code, and the identification code of the manufacturer.

Traceability in cattle and small ruminants in Canada.

Traceback systems for cattle and small ruminants are of international concern after the outbreaks of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the European Union and foot and mouth disease in the United Kingdom and South America. Implementation of a national or international identification system depends on meeting a balance between cost, reliability/durability, ease of use, data transfer speed, protection from fraud, avoidance of entry into the food chain and animal welfare issues. As of 1 January 2001, Canada has instituted a national identification programme for cattle, which will have annual operating and administrative costs of Can$0.20 per head, excluding ear tags. The system will provide herd of origin traceback and individual animal identification by ear tags for all beef cattle. A number of identification technologies are available that would have advantages over visual tags, but these are currently too costly without government support (electronic identification, deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA] fingerprinting), too slow (DNA fingerprinting) or have not been tested sufficiently (retinal imaging) to warrant mandatory inclusion in a national traceback/identification system.

Identification of newborn rats by tattooing.

Pups were identified by toe clipping or tattooing the plantar surface of the paws on day 4 after delivery. Their growth, maturation, and reproductive capability were not affected by either identification method. In the toe clipping group, however, the duration until fall in the suspension test was significantly shortened, indicating that this identification method may not be suitable for some behavioural tests. The clipping also disturbs the skeletal investigation of toes and is not recommended from the view point of animal welfare. Palm tattooing, on the other hand, satisfies the fundamental requirements for long-term identification of rats.

Comparison of ear tattoo, ear notching and microtattoo in rats undergoing cardiovascular telemetry.

Individual and permanent identification of experimental animals is a common and often essential research practice. There is little information available on the short-term effects of these procedures on the animals. In this study, seven rats were implanted with telemetric devices. The effects of three different identification methods (ear tattoo, ear notching and microtattoo) were compared. Cardiovascular data were collected for 24 h after the procedures. Time periods of 0-1, 1-4, 4-16 h (dark) and 16-24 h after the procedure were analysed separately. The most pronounced differences in measured parameters were observed during the first hour after the procedures were performed. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was significantly higher (P < 0.012) following the ear tattoo than the microtattoo procedure by a difference of approximately 5 mmHg. Heart rate (HR) was significantly elevated (P < 0.001) after ear tattoo compared with both ear notching (Δ = 31 beats per minute [bpm]) and microtattoo (Δ = 44 bpm). During the 1-4 h period and the following dark period, the MAP was highest in the ear notching group, but no differences were observed in the HRs. During the following dark period (4-16 h) and the next day (16-24 h) differences in MAP and HR were minor. In conclusion, microtattoo appears to cause the mildest changes in HR and blood pressure. Based on these results, ear tattoo and ear notching should be replaced by microtattoo whenever possible.

Technical note: Evaluation of the official identification system for pigs for sale in New South Wales.

A study was undertaken at 2 saleyard (1 domestic, DS, and 1 export, ES) and 2 abattoir (1 domestic, DA, and 1 export, EA) locations in New South Wales, Australia, to assess the compliance (presence) and readability of body tattoos used to identify individual pigs presented for sale or slaughter. Each location was visited on 3 trading or slaughter days, and tattoo presence and readability of porkers (25 to 60 kg of BW), baconers (60 to 90 kg of BW), backfatters (>90 kg of BW but not for breeding), and breeders were recorded. A total of 4,655 pigs were inspected, including 158 DS, 1,599 ES, 1,257 DA, and 1,641 EA. Tattoo performance at the saleyards was influenced by producer (P < 0.05). Average brand presence at the DS (93.0%) did not differ (P = 0.28) from ES (74.2%). Tattoo compliance ranged from 88.3 to 100% of pigs across pig classes (P > 0.05) at DS. At the ES, tattoo compliance among baconers, backfatters, and breeding stock ranged from 82.4 to 88.3% and was greater (P < 0.05) than that of porkers (70.3%). Average readability was 85.4% at ES and 77.6% at DS (P > 0.05). Tattoo compliance differed (P < 0.05) between abattoirs (98.7% at DA and 92.6% at EA). Readability was greater (P < 0.05) at the EA (80.1%) than at the DA (72.0%). Final performance, as readable brands among animals sold or slaughtered, of the official tattoo system was similar between locations and ranged from 63 to 74%. Our results suggest that current compliance and readability of tattoos would compromise traceback to the farm of origin in the event of an emergency animal disease outbreak. Education activities on legislation requirements and tattoo procedure would likely increase compliance and performance of the system.