Assessment of anthropometric and physical profile of selected school-age children in rural and urban setting in South-West Nigeria (NigeriaLINX pilot) / Avaliação do perfil antropométrico e físico de crianças em idade escolar selecionadas em ambientes rurais e urbanos no sudoeste da Nigéria (piloto NigeriaLINX)

Objective: the objective of this study was to examine the anthropometric and physical profile of selected school-age children in rural and urban setting. Methods: the descriptive cross-sectional design was adopted for the study while multistage sampling techniques, which included simple random and systematic sampling techniques, were used to draw samples from the target population. The sample constitute healthy children who voluntarily participated in the study after consent for participation was given by individual parent. Anthropometric measurements for the study included height, weight, sitting height and BMI while the physical fitness tests for the study included sit and reach, handgrip strength, speed bounce, standing broad jump, 10m x 5 shuttles run and multistage fitness test. Z score, STEN score and independent T-Test were used for data analysis. Results: a total of 222 healthy children with average age of 10 years (male=112, female=109) participated in the study. The results showed that the urban children were taller (Urban=141.3±9.2m; Rural=134±21.3m), heavier (Urban=37.6±10.4kg; Rural=28.2±6.2kg), had more leg power (Urban=105.7±25.5; Rural=49.4±41.0) and arm strength (Urban=15.7±4.1; Rural=13.4±5.2) than rural children. However, the rural children had higher sit and reach score (Rural=25.3±5.8; Urban=22.8±6.0) and completed more laps in multistage fitness test (Rural=35.5±25.5; Urban=12±5.7). The statistical analysis showed that all the variables were significantly different urban and rural children (P<0.05). Conclusion: the current study shows that the children in the urban and rural settings differed in the selected anthropometric and physical variables Therefore, the physical education program and infrastructural facilities for physical activity and sport participation for school age children should be designed based on the socioeconomic status, social amenities and level of development of the host community

Objetivo: examinar o perfil antropométrico e físico de crianças em idade escolar selecionadas em ambientes rurais e urbanos. Métodos: foi realizado um estudo transversal aplicando técnicas de amostragem em vários estágios, que incluíam processos de amostragem aleatória simples e sistemática, usadas para extrair amostras da população-alvo. A amostra constitui-se de crianças saudáveis que participaram voluntariamente do estudo, após consentimento para participação dado por um dos pais. As medições antropométricas incluíram altura, peso, altura sentada e IMC, enquanto os testes de aptidão física para o estudo incluíram sentar-se e alcançar, força de preensão manual, salto de velocidade, salto em largura, corrida de vaivém de 10 x 5 metros e teste de aptidão multiestágio. Foram usados para a análise escore z, escore STEN e teste t independentemente dos dados. Resultados: um total de 222 crianças saudáveis com idade média de 10 anos (masculino=112, feminino=109) participaram do estudo. Os resultados mostraram que as crianças urbanas eram mais altas (Urbano=141,3±9,2m; Rurais=134±21,3m), mais pesadas (Urbano=37,6±10,4kg; Rurais=28,2±6,2kg), tinham mais força nas pernas (Urbano=105,7±25,5; Rurais =49,4±41,0) e força de braço (Urbano=15,7±4,1; Rural=13,4±5,2) do que as crianças da zona rural. No entanto, as crianças da zona rural tiveram maior pontuação de sentar e alcançar (Rural=25,3±5,8; Urbana=22,8±6,0) e completaram mais voltas no teste de condicionamento físico multiestágio (Rural=35,5±25,5; Urbana=12±5,7). Todas as variáveis eram significativamente diferentes entre crianças urbanas e rurais (P<0,05). Conclusão: o presente estudo mostrou que as crianças das áreas urbana e rural diferiram nas variáveis antropométricas e físicas selecionadas. Portanto, o programa de educação física e as instalações de infraestrutura para atividades físicas e participação em esportes para crianças em idade escolar devem ser projetados com base no status socioeconômico, nas comodidades sociais e no nível de desenvolvimento da comunidade anfitriã

Evaluación del nivel de conocimiento sobre alimentación y hábitos saludables adquiridos a partir de un programa de educación alimentaria y nutricional destinado a niños y niñas en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires / Evaluation of level of knowledge about food and healthy habits acquired through a food and nutritional education program aimed at school-age children in the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires

Resumen Introducción: la educación alimentaria y nutricional en el ámbito escolar constituye una valiosa herramienta para la promoción de la salud y algunos estudios muestran su eficacia para mejorar conocimientos, actitudes y comportamientos de la población. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el nivel de conocimiento de las y los escolares sobre los contenidos abordados en un programa de educación alimentaria y nutricional en escuelas de gestión estatal de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Materiales y método: se elaboró un cuestionario auto-administrado de 15 preguntas sobre alimentación saludable, características de un desayuno adecuado, actividad física, hidratación y nociones sobre el consumo de frutas y verduras. Se administró en una muestra aleatorizada de niñas y niños de 14 escuelas públicas de nivel primario, antes de iniciar la intervención educativa y luego de 2 años; entre abril de 2016 y noviembre de 2017. Se incluyeron 220 niñas y niños de 6° grado, de los cuales 191 completaron el cuestionario por segunda vez. Resultados: el porcentaje de escolares que respondieron correctamente se incrementó entre la primera y segunda medición en 13 de los 15 ítems, aunque la diferencia fue estadísticamente significativa en solo 4. El puntaje final promedio fue levemente superior al inicial (0,88 puntos), y la diferencia alcanzó significación estadística para el total de niños y niñas, para ambos géneros y en 2 distritos escolares. Conclusiones: los resultados de la evaluación muestran una modificación pequeña, aunque significativa del nivel de conocimiento sobre alimentación y hábitos saludables de las niñas y los niños. Si bien este es uno de los múltiples factores que influyen en las decisiones alimentarias, es importante que desde el ámbito escolar se brinden las herramientas necesarias para que los individuos sean conscientes de tales elecciones.

Abstract Introduction: food and nutrition education at school is a valuable tool for health promotion and some studies show its effectiveness in improving the population's knowledge, attitudes and behavior. The objective of this work was to evaluate the level of knowledge schoolchildren had upon the contents addressed in a food and nutrition education program in state-run schools of the City of Buenos Aires. Material and methods: a self-administered questionnaire of 15 questions was developed including healthy eating, characteristics of an adequate breakfast, physical activity, hydration and notions about the consumption of fruits and vegetables. It was administered in a randomized sample of girls and boys from 14 state primary schools, before starting the educational intervention and after 2 years; between April 2016 and November 2017. 220 6th grade girls and boys were included, and 191 of them completed the questionnaire a second time. Results: the percentage of children who answered correctly increased between the first and second measurements in 13 of the 15 items, although the difference was statistically significant in only 4. The final average score was slightly higher than the initial one (0.88 points), and the difference reached statistical significance for all schoolchildren, for both genders, and in 2 school districts. Conclusion: The results of the evaluation show a small but significant change in the level of knowledge about food and healthy habits of school girls and boys. Although this is one of the many factors that influence food decisions, it is important that the necessary tools are provided from the school environment so that individuals are aware of such choices.

Investigation of the relationship between the theory of mind and creative thinking skills of children in rural area / Investigação da relação entre a teoria da mente e as habilidades de pensamento criativo de crianças na área rural

The aim of this study, accordingly, is to determine the relation between creativity and theory of mind skills of children aged 5-11 (Ns:117) who continue Primary Education in rural areas and to reveal the relation between the sub-dimensions of these abilities. At the end of the study, it was found that there was a significant and positive relation between the total creativity score and the sub-dimensions of theory of mind. It was found that there was a significant and positive relation between all sub-dimensions of creativity and theory of mind. The total creativity score and the scores of the sub-dimensions of creativity (fluency, originality, and elaboration) were significant but weak predictors of theory of mind tasks.

O objetivo deste estudo é determinar a relação entre criatividade e a teoria das habilidades mentais em crianças de 5 a 11 anos (Ns: 117) que continuam cursando o ensino fundamental em áreas rurais e revelar a relação entre as subdimensões dessas habilidades. No final do estudo, verificou-se que havia uma relação significativa e positiva entre o escore total de criatividade e as subdimensões da teoria da mente dessas crianças. Verificou-se também que havia uma relação significativa e positiva entre todas as subdimensões da criatividade e da teoria da mente. O escore total de criatividade e os escores das subdimensões da criatividade (fluência, originalidade e enriquecimento) foram preditores significativos, porém fracos, das tarefas da teoria da mente.

Cambios en sobrepeso y obesidad en escolares mexicanos de primarias públicas entre 2015 y 2018 / Overweight and obesity changes among Mexican school-age children from public elementary schools between 2015 and 2018

Resumen: Objetivo: Cuantificar los cambios de sobrepeso y obesidad (SO+O) y determinar su asociación con características sociodemográficas en escolares mexicanos de primarias públicas durante 2015 y 2018. Material y métodos: Estudio transversal comparativo. Se analizaron 6.5 millones de alumnos de 59 724 escuelas. La información deriva del Registro Nacional de Peso y Talla (RNPT) en cuatro periodos escolares, de 2015 a 2019, para niños de 6 a 12 años. Se estimaron razones de momios (RM) y prevalencias ajustadas mediante regresión logística ordinal generalizada. Resultados: Las RM fueron positivas para SO+O y para obesidad en el sexo masculino, ámbito urbano y baja marginación (p<0.001). La mayor prevalencia ajustada tanto para sobrepeso como para obesidad se reportó en 2016 (p<0.001). La región Sur manifestó ascensos constantes y significativos para obesidad durante cuatro periodos. Conclusión: El RNPT permite detectar diversas características de riesgo actual para el desarrollo de SO+O en escuelas primarias del país.

Abstract: Objective: To quantify changes in overweight and obesity and determine their association with sociodemographic characteristics in Mexican schoolchildren from public schools between 2015 and 2018. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional comparative study. The data of children between 6 an 12 years old was obtained from the National Register of Weight and Height (RNPT) during four years: 2015 trough 2019. Odds ratios (OR) and adjusted prevalences were estimated using generalized ordinal logistic regression. Results: A rough total of 6.5 million of children from 59 724 schools were studied. The OR's were positive for overweight and obesity (OW+OB) in male gender, urban locality and low marginalization (p<0.001). The greater adjusted probability of overweight and obesity found in 2016 (p<0.001). The country's south region shown constant and significative increases in obesity probabilities. Conclusion: The RNPT allows a real time detection of the various risk characteristics involved in overweight and obesity development in the country elementary schools.

Efectividad del modelo Póngale vida para la prevención de la obesidad infantil en escolares del cantón de La Unión, Costa Rica / Effectiveness of the Póngale Vida Model for the prevention of childhood obesity in schoolchildren, La Union County, Costa Rica

Resumen: Introducción: En Costa Rica, la prevalencia de obesidad infantil ha tenido un aumento considerable en los últimos años, por lo que es una prioridad para la salud pública. El objetivo del análisis es evaluar la efectividad del modelo Póngale Vida mediante las variables antropométricas, bioquímicas, preferencias alimentarias y de actividad física de las personas escolares. El modelo Póngale Vida busca promover estilos de vida saludables y prevenir la obesidad infantil en escolares de escuelas primarias públicas. Las estrategias se basan en el modelo ecológico e incluyen educación alimentaria y actividad física en diferentes escenarios (aula, la escuela, la familia y la comunidad) que podrían influenciar el comportamiento de las personas escolares. Metodología: En el 2009, se evaluaron 482 escolares, divididos en una escuela intervenida (N=255) y una escuela control (N=173), sin embargo, la muestra final fue de 287 escolares (n=255 y n=173 respectivamente). Se les evaluó el IMC, pliegue tricipital, perfil lipídico y se aplicó una entrevista al inicio y final de un periodo de 7 meses. Resultados: Hubo una disminución en la escuela intervenida en la media del puntaje Z del IMC/edad (Inicial= 0.54, Final= 0.48) contrario a la escuela control, la cual aumentó (Inicial=0.70, Final=0.85), pese a que la disminución en la primera no fue significativa, la diferencia en la medición final entre la escuela intervenida y control sí fue significativa (P=0.008). En los indicadores bioquímicos, todos muestran niños y niñas, en ambas escuelas, con valores considerados altos que merecen seguimiento posterior. Conclusión: La intervención permite modificar tendencias, por lo cual la escuela sigue siendo un escenario adecuado para la prevención de obesidad infantil, en este caso, Póngale Vida representa una opción para contribuir a cambios de corto y mediano plazo.

Abstract: Introduction: The prevalence of childhood obesity in Costa Rica has been growing in the last decade. This problem is now a public health priority. The objective of the analysis is to evaluate the effectiveness of the Pongale Vida Model, through the anthropometric and biochemical variables, food and physical activities preferences, of children. The Póngale Vida Model look for promote healthy lifestyles and prevent childhood obesity in school children from public schools. These strategies are based on an ecological model which includes nutrition education and physical activity in the scenarios that are considered may influence behaviors in children such as the classroom, school, family and community. Methodology: In 2009, initially 482 children, were evaluated, divided in one intervened school (n=255) and one control school (n=173), and a final sample of 287 schoolchildren (n=255 and n=173 respectively), were evaluated for BMI, triceps skinfold and lipid profile, as well as one interview was administered at baseline and after a 7 month period. Results: There was a decrease in the intervened school in the mean Z score of BMI/age (Initial=0.54, Final=0.48) contrary to the control school, which increased (Initial=0.70, Final=0.85), despite the decrease in the first it was not significant, the difference in the final measurement between the operated and control school was significant (P=0.008). The biochemical indicators showed high values in both schools which suggest the need of further follow up. Conclusion: The intervention allows to modify trends, for which the school environment continues to be a suitable scenario for the prevention of childhood obesity, Pongale Vida represents an option to contribute to changes in the short and medium term.

Família, escola e transição ecológica: uma revisão integrativa da literatura nacional / Family, school and ecological transition: an integrative review of national literature / Familia, escuela y transición ecológica: una revisión integradora de la literatura nacional

Este trabalho visa a apresentar uma revisão integrativa da literatura nacional referente à família, escola e transição para a escolaridade. Assim, realizouse uma busca de artigos científicos nas bases de dados Scielo e Pepsic, para mapear a produção nacional sobre o tema, entre os anos de 2006 e 2016. Mediante a combinação de palavras-chave, encontraram-se 17 artigos que discutem a relação entre família e escola e como ocorre a transição da criança pequena para o contexto escolar. A análise dos artigos evidenciou que a entrada da criança na escola tende a ser vivenciada, tanto pela família quanto pela criança, como período de estresse, pois envolve a adaptação de todos. O clima familiar positivo, permeado por práticas educativas do tipo indutivas, e a participação ativa na vida escolar das crianças possibilitam que as famílias experimentem satisfatoriamente esse momento de transição para a escolarização.

This work aims at present an integrative review of national literature concerning family, school, and transition to schooling. Thus, a search for scientific articles on Scielo and Pepsic databases was performed to map the national production on the subject between the years of 2006 and 2016. Through the combination of keywords, it was possible to find 17 articles that discuss the relationship between family, school, and how small children make the transition to the school context. The analysis of the articles highlighted that the child’s entry into school tends to be experienced as a stressful moment, both by the family and the child, as it requires adaptation from everyone involved. A positive family environment, permeated by inductive educational practices and active participation in the child’s school life, allows families to experience such transitional moments in a more satisfactory way.

Este trabajo objetiva presentar una revisión integradora de la literatura nacional referente a la familia, escuela y transición para la escolaridad. Así, se realizó una búsqueda de artículos científicos en las bases de datos Scielo y Pepsic para mapear la producción nacional sobre el tema, en los últimos diez años (2006-2016). Mediante la combinación de palabras clave se encontraron 17 artículos que discuten la relación entre familia y escuela, y también, cómo se desarrolla la transición del niño para el contexto escolar. El análisis de los artículos evidenció que la entrada del niño en la escuela tiende a ser experimentada tanto por la familia como por el niño como un período de estrés, pues implica la adaptación de todos. El clima familiar positivo permeado por las prácticas educativas inductivas y la participación activa en la vida escolar de los niños posibilitan que las familias vivan ese momento de transición para la escolarización de forma más satisfactoria.

Prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad en niños escolares / Prevalence of overweight and obesity in school-age children

Resumen Introducción: La obesidad infantil es un reto de salud pública. Entre 1999 y 2012, en México la prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad (SO) en niños escolares pasó de 25.5 a 32 %. Objetivo: Reportar la prevalencia actual de SO en niños escolares del municipio de Durango, México. Método: Encuesta transversal realizada entre enero de 2017 y diciembre de 2018. Se incluyeron 24 600 niños de seis a 11 años, de 138 escuelas del municipio de Durango. Se utilizaron los valores de referencia del índice de masa corporal establecidos por la Organización Mundial de la Salud para determinar la presencia de SO. Resultados: La prevalencia de sobrepeso fue de 19.7 %, la de obesidad de 16 % y la de SO de 35.7 %. En el grupo de seis años se encontró una prevalencia de SO de 25.4 % y en el de 11 años, de 41.1 %. Conclusiones: La prevalencia de SO en niños de seis a 11 años del municipio de Durango es más elevada que la reportada en la encuesta nacional por entidad federativa en 2012 y la nacional en 2016; se observó tendencia al incremento conforme aumenta la edad.

Abstract Introduction: Childhood obesity is a public health challenge. Between 1999 and 2012, the prevalence in Mexico of overweight and obesity in schoolchildren went from 25.5 to 32 %. Objective: To report current prevalence of overweight and obesity in schoolchildren from the municipality of Durango, Mexico. Method: Cross-sectional survey conducted between January 2017 and December 2018. A total of 24,600 children aged between six and 11 years from 138 schools of the municipality of Durango were included. The body mass index reference values established by the World Health Organization were used to determine the presence of overweight and obesity. Results: The prevalence of overweight was 19.7 %, of obesity, 16 %, and of overweight and obesity combined, 35.7 %. In the six-year-old group, a prevalence of overweight-obesity of 25.4 % was found, and in the 11-year-old group, 41.1 %. Conclusions: The prevalence of overweight-obesity in children aged from 6 to 11 years in the municipality of Durango is higher than those reported in the national survey by states in 2012 and in the 2016 national survey; prevalence showed a tendency to increase with age.

Juicio y toma de decisiones en niños de edad escolar / Judgment and Decision Making in School-Age Children

En los últimos cincuenta años, psicólogos y economistas han catalogado los errores que la gente adulta comete cuando toma decisiones. El objetivo de nuestro resumen narrativo es describir estos errores como ocurren en niños de edad escolar. Luego de una breve introducción a las teorías más importantes en economía comportamental (Utilidad Esperada, Prospect, Rastro Difuso, Proceso Dual) haremos un resumen de esta literatura, con énfasis en el período de edad escolar. Evaluamos si los niños comprenden el concepto de 'valor esperado', si sus respuestas cambian en base a como se hace la pregunta, y si prefieren arriesgar en vez de aceptar propuestas seguras. También describimos, desde una perspectiva del desarrollo, la tendencia a sobrevalorar las posesiones, a perseverar cuando el gasto es irrecuperable, y a tener diferentes cuentas mentales. Nuestra revisión indica que las tendencias que se ven en la adultez también suelen ocurrir en niños y niñas de edad escolar, y señala áreas en las que se carece de datos sólidos. Concluimos nuestro artículo sugiriendo futuras áreas de investigación

Over the last half century, psychologists and behavioral economists have catalogued myriad mistakes that people make when making decisions. The way those mistakes are expressed in school-aged children is the focus of this narrative review. After a brief introduction to the main theoretical positions (expected utility theory, prospect theory, fuzzy-trace theory, dual-systems theory), we do a comprehensive review of the developmental literature. We start with children's understanding of expected value, their sensitivity to framing effects, and their tendency to favor risky choices over riskless options. Next, we describe developmental research on the endowment effect, sunk cost, and mental accounting. Our review indicates that biases observed in adults are often evident in school-age children too, and singles out areas of developmental research in which solid information is not available. We conclude by highlighting areas in need of future research

The role of sport participation and body mass index in predicting motor competence of school-age children / O papel da participação esportiva e do índice de massa corporal na predição da competência motora de crianças em idade escolar

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between Sport Participation (SP) and Motor Competence (MC) in school-age children, and to assess the mediation role of Body Mass Index (BMI) on this association. 707 children (332 boys, 375 girls) aged between 6- to 10 years participated in the study. Motor competence was determined using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2). Parents were asked about organized SP, categorized as 1) no participation, 2) partial participation and 3) consistent participation, and BMI was calculated based on the child's height and weight. The results indicated significant differences for all MC components and total score for SP categories, all p < .05, with higher results for consistent participation in sports. For BMI, significant differences occurred in all components, with the exception of fine manual control and manual coordination. Our findings showed that SP was associated with MC, and BMI was not an important factor in these relationships. However, a small mediation of BMI was found, but only for obese children. In summary, we conclude that sport participation plays a relevant role in the development of motor competence in school-age children, and that association is, in general, not mediated by weight status.

RESUMO O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a associação entre Participação Esportiva (PE) e Competência Motora (CM) em crianças em idade escolar e avaliar o papel da mediação do Índice de Massa Corporal (IMC) nesta associação. Foram avaliadas 707 crianças (332 meninos, 375 meninas) com idades entre 6 e 10 anos participaram do estudo. A competência motora foi determinada usando o Teste Bruininks-Oseretsky de Proficiência Motora (BOT-2). Os pais foram questionados sobre a SP organizada, categorizada como 1) sem participação, 2) participação parcial e 3) participação consistente, e o IMC foi calculado com base na altura e no peso da criança. Os resultados indicaram diferenças significativas para todos os componentes do CM e escore total para as categorias de PS, todos p <0,05, com resultados mais altos para a participação consistente nos esportes. Para o IMC, ocorreram diferenças significativas em todos os componentes, com exceção do controle manual e da coordenação manual. Nossos achados mostraram que a SP estava associada à CM, e o IMC não foi um fator importante nessas relações. No entanto, uma pequena mediação do IMC foi encontrada, mas apenas para crianças obesas. Concluímos que a participação esportiva desempenha um papel relevante no desenvolvimento da competência motora em crianças em idade escolar, e essa associação, em geral, não é mediada pelo status de peso.

Alcohol drinking, smoking and food insecurity in Venezuelan parents as potential determinants of their children's growth

Life conditions are key factors for defining growth and development of future generations. Exposure of parents to alcohol, tobacco, food insecurity conditions and adverse socioeconomic environment as part of their lifestyle and quality of life, have been reported to affect their children's health and wellbeing. Prenatal exposures have been extensively documented, but less is known about influences from parental harmful habits and disadvantaged environment during children's school years. The aim of this study is to examine potential associations between parental habits and environmental socioeconomic conditions, including food security status, and anthropometric characteristics of their children. Parental smoking, alcohol intake, food security, and socioeconomic status (SES) were explored in parents of 1730 children recruited at private and public schools in eight Venezuelan cities. These qualitative variables were collected through a semi-structured questionnaire. Weight, height and body mass index were measured using standardized methods in children. Height and BMI were converted to z-scores according to WHO international growth reference. Low BMI z-scores in children were significantly associated with mothers consuming alcohol. The frequency of children with short stature was higher in households with impaired access to quality foods and where mothers reported low and very low food security status. In brief, our study indicates that social environment could have detrimental effects on child anthropometry thus, affecting their wellbeing(AU)

Las condiciones de vida son factores clave para definir el crecimiento y el desarrollo de las generaciones futuras. La exposición de los padres al alcohol, el tabaco, las condiciones de inseguridad alimentaria y el entorno socioeconómico adverso afectan la salud y el bienestar de sus hijos. Los efectos prenatales se han documentado ampliamente, pero se conoce menos sobre las influencias de los hábitos nocivos de los padres y el entorno desfavorable en los niños durante la edad escolar. Se examinan las posibles asociaciones entre los hábitos alcohólicos, tabaquismo, nivel socioeconómico y seguridad alimentaria de los padres y el estado de crecimiento físico de los hijos. La muestra fue de 1730 niños y sus padres, de escuelas privadas y públicas en ocho ciudades venezolana, 2011. Se aplicó un cuestionario semiestructurado para las variables cualitativas y se midió peso, talla, IMC, ambos se analizaron con la referencia de la OMS. El IMC bajo en los niños se asoció significativamente con las madres que consumían alcohol. La frecuencia de los niños con estatura baja fue mayor en los hogares con acceso limitado a alimentos de calidad y estado de seguridad alimentaria bajo y muy bajo. IMC alto 15,7%. Los padres con hábitos de estilo de vida, que incluye consumo regular de alcohol y estar en un hogar con inseguridad alimentaria, pueden descuidar el cuidado de sus hijos y de una nutrición adecuada, que pueden influir en alteraciones en el crecimiento, así como también, en la aparición de enfermedades crónicas en los adultos(AU)

Empleo materno y exceso de peso en escolares mexicanos en 2012: la importancia de las características del hogar / Maternal employment and Mexican school-age children overweight in 2012: the importance of households features

Resumen Introducción: La evidencia respecto a la relación entre la participación laboral de las madres y el sobrepeso y la obesidad de los niños en edad escolar presenta resultados divergentes en todo el mundo. En México, dicha relación no ha sido analizada con datos representativos nacionales. Por lo anterior, el objetivo de este artículo fue evaluar el papel de la participación laboral materna extradoméstica en el peso elevado de la población mexicana en edad escolar (5 a 11 años). Métodos: Se realizó un estudio transversal a partir de una muestra de 17,418 individuos provenientes de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2012, utilizando modelos de regresión logística binomial. Resultados: En el modelo en el que se controló por características individuales de la madre y de contexto se encontró una relación entre la participación materna en el mercado laboral y la composición corporal de los escolares. Sin embargo, al incorporar las características del hogar (arreglos residenciales, etnicidad, tamaño, seguridad alimentaria y nivel socioeconómico) al modelo estadístico, el empleo materno dejó de ser estadísticamente significativo. Dicho modelo fue el que presentó mayor bondad de ajuste. Conclusiones: Las características del hogar, más allá de que la madre trabaje, son aspectos cruciales para entender las tasas de prevalencia de obesidad y sobrepeso en los escolares mexicanos.

Abstract Background: International evidence regarding the relationship between maternal employment and school-age children overweight and obesity shows divergent results. In Mexico, this relationship has not been confirmed by national data sets analysis. Consequently, the objective of this article was to evaluate the role of the mothers' participation in labor force related to excess body weight in Mexican school-age children (aged 5-11 years). Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on a sample of 17,418 individuals from the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2012, applying binomial logistic regression models. Results: After controlling for individual, maternal and contextual features, the mothers' participation in labor force was associated with children body composition. However, when the household features (living arrangements, household ethnicity, size, food security and socioeconomic status) were incorporated, maternal employment was no longer statically significant. Conclusions: Household features are crucial factors for understanding the overweight and obesity prevalence levels in Mexican school-age children, despite the mother having a paid job.

Prevalencia de infección por Trypanosoma cruzi en escolares de Salta y Chaco, Argentina / Seroprevalencia of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in school-age children from localities in Salta and Chaco, Argentina / Prevalência de infecção por Trypanosoma cruzi em crianças em idade escolar de Salta e Chaco, na Argentina

El objetivo del trabajo consistió en identificar la seroprevalencia de la infección por Trypanosoma cruzi en niños en edad escolar en localidades de las provincias de Salta y Chaco. Se trabajó en 44 escuelas de la ciudad de Salta, en parajes de San Carlos; en 10 escuelas de La Unión y en 7 escuelas de Taco Pozo. El trabajo tiene un diseño de corte transversal. La toma de muestra se realizó por punción capilar con equipos Serokit, y la confirmación de los casos seropositivos o dudosos por punción venosa, y obtención de suero, para realizar HAI y ELISA. Los casos seropositivos confirmados fueron tratados con Benznidazol® durante 60 días en dosis de 5-7mg/kg/ día. Para el análisis estadístico se elaboraron tablas con frecuencias absolutas y relativas. Se analizaron 17.884 escolares y se detectaron159 seropositivos, siendo la mayor seroprevalencia en la localidad de La Unión y la menor en la ciudad de Salta. Se aplicó tratamiento a 93 niños (71,54 %) de la ciudad y en el ámbito rural se trataron todos los casos. La vía de infección vectorial fue la de mayor predominio en las madres (64,47%). Se concluye que aunque la seroprevalencia fue menor en la ciudad de Salta que en las zonas rurales, es necesario continuar con la vigilancia.

The aim of this work was to identify seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in school-age children who live in localities from Salta and Chaco. This work was conducted in the following schools: 44 located in Salta city, 10 in La Unión, 7 in Taco Pozo, and several in rural spots around San Carlos town. The design was cross-sectional and the samples were taken by capillary punction with Serokit equipment. Seropositive cases were confirmed by HAI and ELISA performed on serum obtained by venous punction. Confirmed seropositive cases were treated with Benznidazol® for 60 days in doses of 5-7 mg/kg/day. Tables with absolute and relative frequencies were made for statistical analysis. It resulted that the number of school-aged children analyzed was 17,884, 159 being seropositive. The highest seroprevalence was detected in La Unión and the lowest in Salta city. Treatment was given to 93 children (71.54%) from Salta city, while every child was treated in rural areas. Infections in mothers was vector-borne mainly (64.47%). It can be concluded that even though seroprevalence was lower in the city of Salta than in rural areas, it is important to continue monitoring for Chagas disease.

O objetivo do trabalho consistiu em identificar a soroprevalência da infecção por Trypanosoma cruzi em crianças em idade escolar em localidades das províncias de Salta e de Chaco. O trabalho foi realizado em 44 escolas da cidade de Salta, em paragens de San Carlos; em 10 escolas de La Unión e em 7 escolas de Taco Pozo. O mesmo tem um desenho de corte transversal. Tomada de amostra: foi realizada por punção capilar com equipamentos Serokit e a confirmação dos casos soropositivos ou duvidoso por punção venosa e obtenção de soro, para realizar HAI e ELISA. Os casos soropositivos confirmados foram tratados com Benznidazole® durante 60 dias em doses de 5-7 mg/kg/dia. Para a análise estatística foram preparadas tabelas com frequências absolutas e relativas. Analisaram-se 17.884 crianças detectando 159 soropositivos, sendo a maior soroprevalência na cidade de La Unión e a menor na cidade de Salta. Aplicou-se o tratamento a 93 crianças, (71,54%) da cidade e na área rural se trataram todos os casos. A via de infecção vetorial foi a de maior predominância nas mães (64,47%). Conclui-se que embora a soroprevalência tenha sido menor na cidade de Salta do que nas áreas rurais, é necessário continuar com a vigilância.

The Relationship Between Perceptual Motor Skills and Attention / A Relação Entre a Habilidade Perceptomotora e Atenção / La Relación Entre Habilidad Perceptomotora y Atención

Abstract: Although the relationship between perceptual motor skills and attention is reported in the literature, few studies have empirically explored this association. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between these constructs, using the Bender-Gestalt Test: Gradual Scoring System (B-SPG) and the Psychological Battery for Attention Assessment (BPA). The participants were 320 children from four public schools in a city located in the South of the state of Minas Gerais, with ages ranging from seven to 10 years (M = 8.39, SD = 1.10) and 196 (55.9 %) female. The results showed negative, moderate and significant correlations between the total scores of the instruments, indicating the relationship between the constructs. Although the data has confirmed the existence of a relationship between perceptual motor skills and attention, further studies with samples from other regions are necessary.

Resumo: Embora seja apontada na literatura a relação entre a habilidade perceptomotora e a atenção, poucos estudos exploraram empiricamente essa associação. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi verificar a relação entre esses construtos, por meio dos instrumentos Teste Gestáltico Visomotor de Bender: Sistema de Pontuação Gradual (B-SPG) e a Bateria Psicológica para Avaliação da Atenção (BPA). Os participantes foram 320 crianças de quatro escolas públicas de uma cidade situada no sul do estado de Minas Gerais, com idades que variaram entre sete e 10 anos (M = 8,39; DP = 1,10), sendo 196 (55,9 %) do sexo feminino. Os resultados evidenciaram correlações negativas, moderadas e significativas entre os escores totais dos instrumentos, indicando a relação entre os construtos. Embora os dados tenham corroborado a existência de relação entre a habilidade perceptomotora e a atenção, considera-se necessária a realização de novos estudos com amostras de outras regiões.

Resumen: Aunque la literatura informe sobre la relación entre la habilidad perceptomotora y la atención, pocos estudios han explorado empíricamente esta asociación. El objetivo de este trabajo fue investigar la relación entre esos constructos, a través de los instrumentos Test Gestáltico de Bender: Sistema de Puntuación Gradual (B-SPG) y la batería de Psicología para la Evaluación de la Atención (BPA). Los participantes fueron 320 niños de cuatro escuelas públicas de una ciudad situada en el sur del estado de Minas Gerais, con edades que variaron de siete a 10 años (M = 8,39, DE = 1,10), siendo 196 (55,9 %) niñas. Los resultados mostraron correlaciones negativas, moderadas y significativas entre las puntuaciones totales de los instrumentos, lo que indica la relación entre los constructos. Aunque los datos han confirmado la existencia de relación entre habilidad perceptomotora y atención, se considera necesario realizar nuevos estudios con muestras de otras regiones.

Desenvolvimento de crianças sob influência dos contextos sociais e da religiosidade / Child development under the influence of social and religious contexts

O artigo analisa a partir da psicologia psicodinâmica e da antropologia social o desenvolvimento de crianças sob influência dos contextos sociais e da religiosidade para compreender como o contexto ambiental e o apoio emocional influenciam no desenvolvimento. Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo que utiliza entrevistas semiestruturadas, observações e diário de campo. Participaram cinco crianças, com idades de cinco a seis anos, pais, cuidadores e professores. Os resultados foram sistematizados pela análise de conteúdo e apontaram uma circulação atravessada pela violência do bairro e influência religiosa das famílias na sociabilidade das crianças. Conclui-se que a circunstância do contexto social, que gerou medo e insegurança nos pais das crianças, e a prática religiosa dos cuidadores incidiram de modo significante no desenvolvimento emocional

The article analyses, based on psychodynamic psychology and social anthropology, the deve- lopment of children under the influence of social and religious contexts in order to understand how environmental context and emotional support influence development. This qualitative study uses semi-structured interviews, observations, field journal. Five children aged five to six years, parents, caregivers and teachers participated. The results were organized by content analysis and showed a circulation crossed by neighborhood violence and religious influence of families the social skills of children. It is concluded that the circumstances of the social con-text which generated fear and insecurity in parents of the children, and religious practice of ca- regivers were significant to the emotional development

Características del trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad en escolares mexicanos de acuerdo con la percepción de los padres / Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder traits among Mexican school-age children according to parents perception

El trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDAH) es uno de los trastornos del neurodesarrollo que más se detectan en la infancia. El objetivo del presente estudio fue estimar la prevalencia del TDAH en una muestra de niños mexicanos de edad escolar. Se estudiaron 6639 alumnosde escuelas públicas de Guadalajara, Jalisco, México, a los que se les levantó una encuesta con el informe de los padres en un cuestionario diseñado bajo los criterios que el DSM-IV considera para el diagnóstico de TDAH. Se re cuperaron y analizaron 4399 cuestionarios. De acuerdo con el informe de los padres, el 8.9% de los niños tienen un perfil de conductas compatibles con los criterios del DSM-IV para el diagnóstico de TDAH. La proporción masculino: femenino fue de 2:1. La distribución por subtipos fue: 147 escolares con tipo combinado, 132 inatento y 114 del tipo hiperactivo-impulsivo. La prevalencia fue mayor del primero al tercer grado que del cuarto al sexto. La prevalencia de TDAH calculada se encuentra dentro del rango informado en otros países. Los estudios realizados en grandes muestras son útiles para diseñar estrategias de intervención acordes a la población en cuestión.

Attention deficit with hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most frequent neuro developmental disorders identified in children. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of ADHD behaviour in a sample of Mexican school-aged children. Data were obtained from 6639 pupils enrolled in public elementary schools in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. Prevalence was based on parental reports collected using the full DSM-IV criteria. A total of 4399 questionnaires were received and analysed. According to the parents, 8.9% of the children met the DSM-IV ADHD criteria. The male: female ratio was 2:1. Distribution by subtypes was as follows: 147 children with combined type, 132 inattentive children, and 114 with the hyperactive-impulsive type. Prevalence was higher from first grade to third grade than it was from fourth to sixth grade. The calculated ADHD prevalence is consistent with the range reported by other countries. Studies conducted with large samples are useful in the design of intervention strategies in accordance with the target population.

Prevalencia de anemia y estado nutricional de escolares del área periurbana de Sucre, Bolivia / Anemia prevalence and nutritional status in children of a suburban area of Sucre, Bolivia

Background: There is limited data on the nutritional status and the prevalence of anemia among school children of Bolivia. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of anemia, iron deficiency and nutritional status by anthropometry in children of a suburban area in the Municipality of Sucre, Bolivia. Subjects and methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted involving all school children aged 6 to 10years (n=195) of a suburban school of Sucre-Bolivia (2750 m over sea level). We measured weight and height and calculated Z score for weight/age, height/age, and BMI/age indices using WHO standards. Blood samples were drawn to determine hemoglobin (Hb) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV). Anemia was defined using cut-offs points adjusted for age and corrected for altitude (Hb < 13.4 d/dl). Results: The prevalence of malnutrition observed by Z scores of height/age and weight/age were 20% and 8, 7%, respectively, and mean BMIz score was -0,07. Of these children, 17.9% showed anemia (17.4% iron deficiency anemia), 22.6% iron deficiency without anemia and 19.5% depleted iron stores. Conclusions: The school age children from the suburban area of Sucre-Bolivia presented a mild prevalence of anemia and medium prevalence of stunting.

Introducción: Existen escasos datos sobre el estado nutricional y la prevalencia de la anemia entre los escolares de Bolivia. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo determinar la prevalencia de anemia, deficiencia de hierro y el estado nutricional por antropometría en niños de una zona suburbana de la Municipalidad de Sucre, Bolivia. Sujetos y métodos: Se realizó un estudio observacional transversal en que participaron todos los escolares de 6 a 10 años (n=195) de una escuela suburbana de Sucre-Bolivia (2750 msnm). Se midió el peso y la talla y se calculó puntaje Z peso/edad, talla/edad, e IMC utilizando tablas de la OMS. Se extrajo una muestra de sangre para determinar hemoglobina, volumen corpuscular medio y ferritina sérica. La anemia se definió utilizando un punto de corte por edad y corregidos por la altitud (Hb <13.4 d/dl). Resultados: La prevalencia de malnutrición observado por las puntuaciones Z de talla/edad y peso/edad fueron de 20% y 9%, respectivamente, y la media del z de IMC fue -0,07. De estos niños, 17, 9% presentó anemia (17,4 anemia por deficiencia de hierro), 22,6% deficiencia de hierro sin anemia y 19,5% depósitos de hierro depletados. Conclusiones: Los niños en edad escolar de la zona suburbana de Sucre-Bolivia presentaron una prevalencia leve de anemia, y una moderada prevalencia de retraso del crecimiento.

Habilidades Sociais como Preditoras de Problemas de Comportamento em Escolares / Social Skills as Predictors of Problem Behavior in School Children

RESUMOEste estudo realizou uma caraterizacão do repertório de habilidades sociais e problemas de comportamento de crianças e avaliou a força preditiva das habilidades sociais para problemas de comportamento. Participaram 220 crianças, do 3º ao 6º ano do Ensino Fundamental, bem como seus pais ou responsáveis, que responderam ao Sistema de Avaliação de Habilidades Sociais (SSRS-BR). A amostra apresentou escores coerentes com a norma para habilidades sociais e problemas de comportamento, sendo que os internalizantes, segundo os pais ou responsáveis, foram mais frequentes. Adicionalmente, as habilidades sociais de maior peso preditivo foram as de Responsabilidade (na autoavaliação) e as de Autocontrole e Civilidade (na avaliação de pais ou responsáveis). Os resultados foram discutidos em termos de suas implicações para a promoção de habilidades sociais como mecanismo preventivo de problemas comportamentais.

ABSTRACTThis study realized a characterization of social skills and behavior problems in children and evaluated the predictive power of social skills for behavior problems. The participants were 220 children, from 3rd to 6th grade of Elementary School, and their parents or guardians, who responded to the Assessment of Social Skills (SSRS-BR) system. The sample scores were consistent with the norm for social skills and behavior problems, and according to the parents or guardians, the internalizing were more frequent. Also,Responsibility (in the self-assessment) and Self-control and Civility (in the assessment by parents or guardians) were the social skills with the greatest predictive power. The results were analyzed in terms of their implications for the promotion of social skills as a preventive mechanism for behavioral problems in school children.

Coparentalidade em genitores de bebês com indicativos de dificuldades de inserção escolar / The families with babies in co-parenting who have indicatives of early school insertion difficulties / Coparentalidad en genitores de bebitos con indicativos de dificultades de inserción escolar

Objetivou-se analisar a coparentalidade em genitores de bebês de idade entre três e oito meses, com indicativos de dificuldades de inserção em escola de Educação Infantil. Realizou-se um estudo exploratório e descritivo, com método de análise de dados qualitativo. Quatro pares de genitores, com idades entre 26 e 40 anos, cujos bebês ingressaram na escola de Educação Infantil logo após o término da licença-maternidade, responderam a um questionário de dados sociodemográficos e a uma entrevista semiestruturada. Os resultados apontam reflexos de características da atualidade neste momento, como as dificuldades das famílias em contar com uma rede de apoio e a valorização das necessidades ou interesses das mães em ajudar na renda familiar, que justificam o ingresso precoce dos bebês na escola. Quanto à coparentalidade, destaca-se entre os genitores uma divisão efetiva de tarefas e o compartilhamento de cuidados com os filhos, mas no processo de inserção escolar ainda são as mães as principais participantes, o que mostra uma heterogeneidade nesses processos.

This study aimed to analyze the co-parenting in parents of babies aged between three and eight months, indicative of insertion difficulties in school for early childhood education. We conducted an exploratory and descriptive study with qualitative data analysis method. Four pairs of parents, aged 26 and 40, whose babies entered school for early childhood education right after the end of maternity leave, answered a sociodemographic questionnaire and a semi-structured interview. The results show characteristic of modern reflections at this point, as the difficulties of families to rely on a network of support and appreciation of the needs or interests of mothers to help the family income, justifying the early entry of babies at school. As for co-parenting, stands out among the parents an effective division of labor and the care sharing with their children, but the school inclusion process are still mothers major participants, which shows a heterogeneity in these processes.

Se tuvo por objetivo analizar la relación parental en genitores de bebitos de edad entre tres y ocho meses, con indicativos de dificultades de inserción en escuela de Educación Infantil. Se realizó un estudio exploratorio y descriptivo, con método de análisis de datos cualitativo. Cuatro parejas de genitores, con edades entre 26 y 40 años, cuyos bebitos ingresaron en la escuela de Educación Infantil luego tras el término de la licencia-maternidad, respondieron a un cuestionario de datos sociodemográficos ya una entrevista semiestructurada. Los resultados apuntan reflejos de características de la actualidad en este momento, como las dificultades de las familias en contar con una red de apoyo y la valoración de las necesidades o intereses de las madres en ayudar en la renta familiar, que justifican el ingreso precoz de los bebitos en la escuela. Cuanto a la relación parental, se destaca entre los genitores una división efectiva de tareas y el compartimiento de cuidados con los hijos, pero en el proceso de inserción escolar aún son las madres las principales participantes, lo que enseña una heterogeneidad en esos procesos.

Crecimiento pre y postnatal asociados a sobrepeso corporal en escolares de Bayamo / Pre and postnatal growth as related to overweight among Bayamo school-age children

OBJETIVO: identificar la asociación entre factores prenatales y relacionados con el primer año de vida y su influencia en el sobrepeso corporal de edades ulteriores. MÉTODOS: se realizó un estudio observacional, retrospectivo, analítico, de casos y controles en el municipio Bayamo con 200 escolares con sobrepeso corporal y 200 niños normales de 6-11 años de edad, de la misma zona de residencia, nacidos de madres con similar edad gestacional de 37-42 semanas, homogéneos en edad y sexo y con historia de no afecciones de salud. En el análisis estadístico se estimó el riesgo asociado como Odd Ratio. RESULTADOS: se mostró una fuerte asociación entre el sobrepeso corporal en la edad escolar y la ganancia de peso excesiva en los primeros 4 meses de vida, bajo peso, reducida longitud supina y circunferencia cefálica en el momento del nacimiento y hábito de fumar, insuficiente ganancia de peso corporal, bajo IMC y enfermedades de la madre durante el embarazo. CONCLUSIONES: estos factores deben ser considerados en la prevención de la obesidad infantil. La ganancia de peso acelerada en los primeros meses de vida de niños nacidos con afectación del crecimiento fetal debe ser prevenida.

OBJECTIVE: describe the relationship between prenatal factors and those occurring during the first year of life, and determine their influence on overweight in later stages. METHODS: an analytical observational retrospective case-control study was conducted in the municipality of Bayamo with 200 overweight school-age children and 200 normal children aged 6-11 years from the same area of residence, born to mothers with similar gestational age of 37-42 weeks, homogeneous as to age and sex, and with a history of good health. The statistical analysis included estimation of the associated risk as odd ratio. RESULTS: a strong association was found between overweight at school age and the following factors: excessive weight gain during the first 4 months of life, low weight, reduced supine length and head circumference at birth, smoking, insufficient weight gain, low BMI and maternal diseases during pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: these factors should be borne in mind in the prevention of child obesity. Rapid weight gain during the first months of life should be prevented among children born with fetal growth disorders.

Sonographic biometry of normal kidney dimensions among school-age children in Nsukka, Southeast Nigeria / Biometría sonográfica de las dimensiones normales del riñón entre niños de edad escolar en Nsukka, Sureste de Nigéria

BACKGROUND: Some kidney diseases are usually associated with changes in kidney size. OBJECTIVE: To determine sonographically the normal limits and percentile curves of the kidney dimensions according to age, gender and somatometric parameters among school-age children. METHODS: A prospective cross-sectional research design and convenience sampling method were utilized. Participants included 947 normal subjects (496 boys and 451 girls) aged 6-17 years old. The sonographic examination was performed on a Shenzhen DP-1100 machine with 3.5 MHz convex transducer. Longitudinal and transverse dimensions of the kidneys were obtained in coronal plane with the subject in the supine or left lateral decubitus position. RESULTS: The means of right and left kidney lengths in mm were 79.6 ± 8.1 and 81.6 ± 8.3, respectively while those of the right and left kidney widths in mm were 35.03 ± 3.6 and 35.09 ± 3.6, respectively. Dimensions of the kidneys were not statistically different in boys and girls (p > 0.05). There was a statistically significant difference between right and left kidney length (p < 0.05). Height correlated best with both kidney lengths. Thus the normal limits, prediction models and percentile curves of kidney lengths were established with respect to height. CONCLUSION: Sonographic determination of pathologic changes in the size of the kidney necessitates knowing the normal ranges of its length especially with respect to height in school-age children.

ANTECEDENTES: Algunas enfermedades renales se asocian generalmente a cambios en el tamaño del riñón. OBJETIVO: Determinar sonográficamente los límites normales y las curvas percentiles de las dimensiones del riñón según edad, género y parámetros somatométricos entre niños en edad escolar. MÉTODOS: Se utilizó un diseño de investigación transversal prospectivo y un método de muestreo de conveniencia. Los participantes incluyeron 947 sujetos normales (496 niños y 451 niñas) de 6-17 años de edad. El examen sonográfico fue realizado con un equipo Shenzhen DP-1100 con transductor convexo de 3.5 MHz. Las dimensiones longitudinales y transversales de los riñones fueron obtenidas en el plano coronal con el sujeto en posición supina o decúbito lateral izquierdo. RESULTADOS: Los promedios de las longitudes de los riñones derechos e izquierdos en mm fueron 79.6 ± 8.1 and 81.6 ± 8.3, respectivamente, mientras que los de las anchuras de los riñones derechos e izquierdos en mm fueron 35.03 ± 3.6 and 35.09 ± 3.6, respectivamente. Las dimensiones de los riñones no fueron estadísticamente diferentes en los niños y las niñas (p > 0.05). Hubo una diferencia estadísticamente significativa entre la longitud del riñón derecho y el izquierdo (p < 0.05). La altura guardó una mejor correlación con ambas longitudes del riñón. Así los límites normales, los modelos de predicción y las curvas percentiles de las longitudes del riñón, fueron establecidas con respecto a la altura. CONCLUSIÓN: La determinación sonográfica de los cambios patológicos en el tamaño del riñón requiere que se conozcan los rangos normales de su longitud, especialmente con respecto a la altura, en los niños en edad escolar.