Interacción del microbioma intestinal y el hueso / Interaction between the intestinal microbiome and bone

El "microbioma" no solo está constituido por los microbios, sino por todos los componen-tes que viven en el mismo hábitat conforman-do un nicho ecológico. Es decir, está conformado por los microorganismos (bacterias, hongos, protozoos, etc.), todo el espectro de moléculas producidas por ellos tales como sus componentes estructurales (ácidos nucleicos, proteínas, lípidos y glúcidos), meta-bolitos, toxinas, etc., y las moléculas producidas por el huésped. El microbioma intestinal (MI) ha emergido como un factor que tiene un gran efecto sobre la cantidad, calidad y fuerza del hueso. Las investigaciones revelan que la homeostasis ósea está ligada al micro-bioma saludable, mientras que la disbiosis (alteración en la biodiversidad microbiana) puede exacerbar la actividad osteoclástica y promover la osteoporosis. Los mecanismos potenciales involucrados en la interacción del microbioma intestinal y el hueso son la influencia del metabolismo del huésped, el mantenimiento de la integridad intestinal y regulación de la absorción de nutrientes, la regulación del eje intestino-sistema inmune y la modulación del sistema endocrino. Es decir que hay múltiples vías por las cuales el MI influye sobre el hueso, pero estos y otros mecanismos deben profundizarse más aún. También es necesario que se identifiquen y caractericen mejor los microorganismos que están asociados a las enfermedades óseas. El conocimiento de estos aspectos podría ser útil para el desarrollo de herramientas terapéuticas basadas en el MI que puedan mejorar la eficacia de los distintos tratamientos existentes. (AU)

The microbiome is not only constituted by microbes, but by all the components that live in the same habitat forming an ecological niche. It is conformed by the microorganisms ( bacteria, fungi, protozoa, etc), the entire spectrum of molecules produced by them (nucleic acids, proteins, lipid and carbohydrates, metabolites, toxins, etc) and the molecules produced by the host. The intestinal microbiome (IM) has emerged as a factor with great effects on the quantity, quality and strength of bone. The investigations reveal that bone homeostasis is linked to the healthy microbiome, while the dysbiosis (alteration in the microbial biodiversity) can exacerbate the osteoclastic activity and promote osteoporosis. The potential mechanisms involved in the interaction between IM and bone are the influence of the host metabolism, the maintenance of the intestinal integrity and regulation of the nutrient absorption, the regulation of the intestine/ immune system axis and the modulation of the endocrine system. That is, there are multiple ways through which IM influences on bone, but these and other mechanisms need to be further studied. It is also necessary to identify and characterize the microorganisms associated with the bone diseases. Knowledge of these aspects could be useful to develop therapeutical tools based on the IM that could improve the efficacy of the current treatments. (AU)

Melatonin has a stimulatory effect on osteoblasts by upregulating COL-I and OPN expression/secretion / Melatonina tem efeito estimulador em osteoblastos, pela regulação positiva da expressão/secreção de COL-I e OPN

ABSTRACT Melatonin (MLT) is a potential signaling molecule in the homeostasis of bone metabolism and may be an important mediator of bone formation and stimulation. The aim of this in vitro study was to evaluate the effect of MLT on the viability, mRNA/protein expression and mineralization of pre-osteoblastic cells. The concentrations 5, 2.5, 1, 0.1 and 0.01 mM MLT were tested on pre-osteoblastic cells (MC3T3) compared to control (no MLT), evaluating proliferation and cell viability (C50), gene expression (RT-PCR) and secretion (ELISA) of COL-I and OPN at 24h, 48h and 72h, and the formation of mineral nodules (alizarin red and fast red) after 10 days of treatment. MLT at 5 and 2.5 mM proved to be cytotoxic (C50), so only 0.01, 0.1 and 1 mM were used for the subsequent analyses. OPN mRNA expression increased with MLT at 0.1 mM - 1 mM, which was followed by increased secretion of OPN both at 24h and 72h compared to the remaining groups (p <0.05). COL-I mRNA and COL-1 secretion followed the same pattern as OPN at 0.1 mM MLT at 72h of treatment (p <0.05). Regarding mineralization, all MLT doses (except 1mM) caused an increase (p <0.05) in the formation of mineral nodules compared to the control. Melatonin at 0.01mM - 1mM had a stimulatory effect on osteoblasts by upregulating COL-I and OPN expression/ secretion and mineralization, thereby fostering osteogenesis.

RESUMO A melatonina (MLT) é uma molécula potencial de sinalização na homeostase do metabolismo ósseo e pode ser um importante mediador da formação e estimulação óssea. O objetivo deste estudo in vitro foi avaliar o efeito da MLT na viabilidade, na expressão do mRNA da proteína e mineralização de células préosteoblásticas. As concentrações de MLT 5, 2,5, 1, 0,1 e 0,01 mM foram testadas em células pré-osteoblásticas da linhagem MC3T3 em comparação ao controle (sem MLT), avaliando a proliferação e a viabilidade celular (C50), expressão gênica (rtPCR) e secreção (Elisa) de Colágeno tipo 1 (COL-I) e osteopontina (OPN) às 24, 48 e 72 horas, além da formação de nódulos minerais por meio do teste vermelho de Alizarina fast red após 10 dias de tratamento. MLT a 5 e 2,5 mM provou ser tóxico (C50). Portanto, as concentrações de 0,01, 0,1 e 1 mM foram utilizadas para as análises subsequentes. A expressão do mRNA da OPN aumentou com MLT a 0,1 mM-1mM, seguida pela secreção aumentada de OPN às 24 e 72 horas em comparação aos demais grupos (p<0,05). O mRNA de COL-I e a secreção de COL-I seguiram o mesmo padrão do OPN a 0,1 mM de MLT em 72 horas de tratamento (p<0,05). Em relação à mineralização, todas as doses de MLT (exceto 1mM) causaram aumento (p<0,05) na formação de nódulos minerais em comparação ao controle. A MLT na concentração entre 0,01mM a 1 mM teve um efeito estimulador sobre os osteoblastos, ao regular positivamente a expressão e secreção de COL-I e OPN, além da mineralização, favorecendo a osteogênese.

Up-regulated expression of CD147 gene in malignant bone tumor and the possible induction mechanism during osteoclast formation

It is increasingly evident that the microenvironment of bone can influence cancer phenotype in many ways that favor growth in bone. CD147, a transmembrane protein of the immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily, was identified independently in different species and has many designations across different species. However, expression levels of CD147 mRNA in bone cancer have not been described. In this study, we have used real-time fluorescence quantification (RT-PCR) to demonstrate CD147 expression in malignant bone cancer and benign bone tumor tissues. The results suggested that the expression of CD147 gene was significantly up-regulated in malignant bone cancer. Moreover, we found that over-expressed RANKL progressively enhanced osteoclast formation up to 48 h, which suggested that RANKL could promote the formation of osteoclast, indicating that both CD147 and RANKL play important roles in the formation of osteoclasts. Furthermore, the expressions of four osteoclast specific expression genes, including TRACP, MMP-2, MMP-9 and c-Src, were analyzed using RT-PCR. The results indicated that four osteoclast-specific expression genes were detectable in all osteoclast with different treatments. However, the highest expression level of these four osteoclast-specific expression genes appears in the CD147+ RANKL group and the lowest expression level of these four osteoclast-specific expression genes appears with si-RANKL treatment. Characterization of the role of CD147 in the development of tumors should lead to a better understanding of the changes occurring at the molecular level during the development and progression of primary human bone cancer.

MLO-Y4 osteocytic cell clones express distinct gene expression patterns characteristic of different stages of osteocyte differentiation / Clones de las células osteocíticas MLO-Y4 tienen diferentes patrones de expresión génica característicos de diferentes estadíos de diferenciación osteocítica

Osteocytes are the most abundant bone cell and are formed when osteoblasts become embedded in the bone matrix. Through changes in gene expression and paracrine effects, osteocytes regulate the number of osteoblasts, bone forming cells, and osteoclasts, bone resorbing cells, which are needed to maintain bone mass. MLO-Y4 is the better characterized osteocytic cell line; however, lacks expression of sclerostin, the product of the SOST gene, which is fundamental for osteocyte function and blocks bone formation. With the objective to isolate MLO-Y4 clones with different gene expression profiles, we performed cultures at very low density of MLO-Y4 cells stably transfected with nuclear green fluorescent protein (MLOnGFP). Cell morphology was visualized under a fluorescence microscope. Once the cells reached 80% confluency, RNA was extracted and quantitative real time PCR was performed. Clones exhibit different sizes and morphology, with some cells showing a spindle-like shape and others with abundant projections and a star-like shape. Gene expression also differed among clones. However, none of the clones examined expressed SOST. We conclude that the MLO-nGFP clones constitute a useful tool to study osteocyte differentiation and the role of osteocytes in the control of bone formation and resorption in vitro. (AU)

Los osteocitos son las células más abundantes del hueso y se forman cuando los osteoblastos se encuentran rodeados de matriz ósea. A través de cambios en la expresión génica y efectos paracrinos, los osteocitos controlan el número de osteoblastos que forman el hueso, y osteoclastos que resorben el hueso, células necesarias para mantener la masa ósea. Las células MLO-Y4 son la línea celular osteocítica más investigada; sin embargo, no expresan esclerostina, el pro esclerostina, el producto del gen SOST que bloquea la formación ósea y es indispensable para la función de los osteocitos. Con el objetivo de aislar clones de las células MLO-Y4 con diferentes perfiles de expresión génica, realizamos cultivos a muy baja densidad de las células transfectadas en forma estable con proteína verde fluorescente nuclear (MLO-nGFP). La morfología celular fue evaluada utilizando un microscopio de fluorescencia. Una vez que las células alcanzaron el 80% de confluencia, el ARN fue extraído y analizado por PCR cuantitativa en tiempo real. Las células de los diferentes clones tienen diferentes tamaños y morfología, algunas células son fusiformes y otras con proyecciones citoplasmáticas abundantes y en forma de estrella. La expresión de los genes también varió en los distintos clones. Sin embargo, ninguno de ellos expresó SOST. En conclusión, los clones de las células MLO-nGFP constituyen una herramienta útil para estudiar la diferenciación de los osteocitos y el rol de estas células en el control de la formación y resorción ósea in vitro. (AU)

El esqueleto como órgano endocrino: funciones metabólicas de la osteocalcina / The skeleton as an endocrine organ: metabolic functions of osteocalcin

El esqueleto es uno de los sistemas más grandes de un vertebrado y, como tal, es razonable especular que no puede funcionar aislado del resto del organismo. De hecho, sabemos que existen sistemas complejos de regulación cruzada entre el esqueleto y muchos otros órganos. Hoy poseemos herramientas que nos permiten realizar supresión genética en células o tejidos específicos. Esto nos ha permitido comprender cómo los órganos se comunican entre sí y ha revitalizado el concepto de fisiología del organismo como un todo. Efectivamente, los últimos años han sido testigos del descubrimiento de funciones inesperadas que ejerce el esqueleto y que afectan al organismo en su totalidad. Una de tales funciones reconocidas recientemente es el control del metabolismo energético, a través de la secreción de osteocalcina. La osteocalcina es una hormona producida por los osteoblastos que regula la secreción de insulina, la sensibilidad a esta hormona y el metabolismo energético. Los hallazgos iniciales suscitaron varias preguntas fundamentales sobre la naturaleza de la acción de la insulina sobre el hueso. Pero esto solo fue la punta del iceberg. Efectivamente, más adelante se descubrió, mediante el análisis de ratones que carecen del receptor de insulina (Ins R) solamente en osteoblastos, que la acción de la insulina sobre estas células favorecía la homeostasis de la glucosa en todo el cuerpo. Es importante destacar que esta función de la insulina en los osteoblastos opera mediante la regulación negativa de la carboxilación y la biodisponibilidad de la osteocalcina. Más aún, se observó que las vías de señalización de la insulina en los osteoblastos regulan positivamente no solo la formación sino también la resorción del hueso. Curiosamente, parece que las vías de señalización de la insulina en osteoblastos pueden inducir la activación de la osteocalcina mediante la estimulación de la actividad de los osteoclastos. De hecho, el bajo pH generado durante la resorción ósea es suficiente para desencadenar la descarboxilación (y subsiguiente activación) de la osteocalcina. En breve discutiremos dos nuevas proposiciones: 1) los osteoblastos son un blanco utilizado por la insulina para controlar la homeostasis de la glucosa en todo el organismo y 2) la resorción ósea desempeña un papel fundamental en la regulación de la activación de la osteocalcina. (AU)

The skeleton is one of the biggest systems in a vertebrate animal and, as such, it is reasonable to speculate that it cannot function isolated from the rest of the organism. In fact, we know that complex systems exist for the cross-regulation between the skeleton and several other organs. Today, we have the tools that allow us to perform genetic suppression in specific cells or tissues. This has allow us understand the mechanisms by which the organs communicate with each other and has revitalized the concept of organismal physiology as a whole. Studies conducted in recent years have uncovered unexpected functions performed by the skeleton. One of these is the control of global energy metabolism, through the secretion of osteocalcin, a protein produced by osteoblasts that acts as a hormone regulating insulin secretion, insulin sensitivity and energy expenditure. The evidence comes from the analysis of mice lacking insulin receptor (InsR) exclusively in osteoblasts. These mice have a global metabolic phenotype demonstrating that the action of insulin in osteoblasts promotes the homeostasis of glucose throughout the body. This action of insulin in osteoblasts is mediated by the negative regulation of the carboxylation (and bioavailability) of osteocalcin. The decarboxylation (and activation) of osteocalcin, in turn, occurs in the osteoclastic resorption pit. Briefly: the osteoblast is a target used by insulin to control the homeostasis of glucose throughout the body and bone resorption is the mechanism that regulates the activation of osteocalcin. (AU)

Bioactive Glass Particles in Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Osteogenic Cell Cultures

Abstract This study aimed to investigate the influence of a three-dimensional cell culture model and bioactive glass (BG) particles on the expression of osteoblastic phenotypes in rat calvaria osteogenic cells culture. Cells were seeded on two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) collagen with BG particles for up to 14 days. Cell viability and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity was performed. Cell morphology and immunolabeling of noncollagenous bone matrix proteins were assessed by epifluorescence and confocal microscopy. The expressions of osteogenic markers were analyzed using RT-PCR. Mineralized bone-like nodule formation was visualized by microscopy and calcium content was assessed quantitatively by alizarin red assay. Experimental cultures produced a growing cell viability rate up to 14 days. Although ALP activity at 7 days was higher on BG cultures, cells on 3D and 3D+BG had an activity decrease of ALP at 14 days. Three-dimensional conditions favored the immunolabeling for OPN and BSP and the expression of ALP and COL I mRNAs. BG particles influenced positively the OC and OPN mRNAs expression and calcified nodule formation in vitro. The results indicated that the 3D cultures and BG particles contribute to the expression of osteoblastic phenotype and to differentiated and mineralized matrix formation.

Resumo O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a influência do modelo de cultura celular tridimensional e das partículas de vidro bioativo (BG) sobre a expressão fenotípica de culturas de células osteogênicas da calvária de ratos. As células foram mantidas em culturas sobre superfícies colágenas bi-dimensionais (2D) e em géis de colágeno tridimensional (3D) com e sem partículas de BG até 14 dias. Foram avaliadas: viabilidade celular, atividade de fosfatase alcalina (ALP), morfologia celular e imunomarcação de proteínas da matriz não-colágena do osso através de epifluorescência e microscopia confocal. As expressões de marcadores osteogênicos foram analisadas utilizando RT-PCR. A formação de nódulos mineralizados foi visualizada através de microscopia e o conteúdo de cálcio foi avaliado quantitativamente pelo Alizarina Red. As culturas experimentais produziram uma taxa crescente de viabilidade até 14 dias. Embora a atividade ALP em 7 dias tenha sido maior em culturas com BG, as células em 3D e 3D+BG apresentaram uma diminuição da atividade ALP aos 14 dias. As condições tridimensionais favoreceram a imunomarcação para OPN e BSP e a expressão de mRNAs para ALP e COL I. As partículas de BG influenciaram positivamente a expressão do mRNAs para OPN e OC e a formação de nódulos calcificados in vitro. Os resultados indicaram que as culturas em 3D e partículas BG contribuíram para a expressão do fenótipo osteoblástico e para a diferenciação e formação de matriz mineralizada.

The role of under-investigated connexins in musculoskeletal tissue: a brief review with emphasis on bone tissue / El papel de las escasamente investigadas conexinas en el tejido músculo-esquelético: una breve revisión con énfasis en el tejido óseo

Connexins (Cxs) are a family of transmembrane proteins that form gap junctions and hemi-channels, which mediate cell-cell communication between neighboring cells and the respective extracellular milieu in different tissues. Most tissues and cell types throughout the body express one or more Cx proteins, highlighting its importance in regulating cell growth, differentiation, adhesion, migration, cell death and others. Moreover, Cx can propagate intracellular signals through its C-terminus domain, and thus function beyond a mere channel. Cx43 is the most highly expressed and most well studied Cx in bone and musculoskeletal tissues, although Cx40, Cx45, Cx46 and more recently, the Cx37 have been described in bone tissue, along with Cx26, Cx32 and Cx39 in other musculoskeletal tissues. Here, we discuss the basic structure of gap junctions and the role of the Cxs in musculoskeletal tissue, with special focus on Cx37. (AU)

Las conexinas (Cxs) son una familia de proteínas transmembrana que forman uniones en hendidura y hemicanales encargados de mediar la comunicación entre células vecinas y el respectivo medio extracelular en diferentes tejidos. La mayoría de los tejidos y células expresan una o más proteínas conexina, jugando un papel importante en la regulación de la proliferación celular, diferenciación, adhesión, migración y muerte celular, entre otras funciones. Además de actuar como un canal, las conexinas pueden propagar señales intracelulares a través del dominio C-terminal. La Cx43 es la conexina mas expresada y mejor estudiada en el tejido óseo y el músculo, aunque las Cx40, Cx45, Cx46, y mas recientemente Cx37, son también detectadas en el hueso. A su vez la expresión de la Cx26, Cx32 y Cx39 ha sido observada en otros tejidos músculoesqueléticos. En este manuscrito describimos la estructura básica de las uniones tipo gap y el papel que las Cxs, y en especial la Cx37, tienen en tejidos músculo-esqueléticos. (AU)

Serum from patients with ankylosing spondylitis can increase PPARD, fra-1, MMP7, OPG and RANKL expression in MG63 cells

OBJECTIVES: To explore the effects of serum from patients with ankylosing spondylitis on the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway and to assess whether the serum has an osteogenic effect in MG63 cells. METHODS: MG63 cells were cultured with serum from 45 ankylosing spondylitis patients, 30 healthy controls, or 45 rheumatoid arthritis patients. The relative PPARD, fra-1, MMP7, OPG and RANKL mRNA levels were measured using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Associations between gene expression and patient demographics and clinical assessments were then analyzed. RESULTS: MG63 cells treated with serum from ankylosing spondylitis patients had higher PPARD, fra-1, MMP7 and OPG gene expression than did cells treated with serum from controls or rheumatoid arthritis patients (all p<0.05). RANKL expression was higher in MG63 cells treated with serum from patients with ankylosing spondylitis or rheumatoid arthritis than in those treated with serum from controls (both p<0.05). The OPG/RANKL ratio was also higher in MG63 cells treated with serum from ankylosing spondylitis patients than in those treated with serum from controls (p<0.05). No associations were found between the expression of the five genes and the patient demographics and clinical assessments (all p>0.05). CONCLUSIONS : Serum from ankylosing spondylitis patients increases PPARD, fra-1, MMP7, OPG and RANKL expression and the OPG/RANKL ratio in MG63 cells; these effects may be due to the stimulatory effect of the serum on the Wnt pathway.

Tridax procumbens flavonoids promote osteoblast differentiation and bone formation

BACKGROUND: Tridaxprocumbens flavonoids (TPFs) are well known for their medicinal properties among local natives. Besides traditionally used for dropsy, anemia, arthritis, gout, asthma, ulcer, piles, and urinary problems, it is also used in treating gastric problems, body pain, and rheumatic pains of joints. TPFs have been reported to increase osteogenic functioning in mesenchymal stem cells. Our previous study showed that TPFs were significantly suppressed the RANKL-induced differentiation of osteoclasts and bone resorption. However, the effects of TPFs to promote osteoblasts differentiation and bone formation remain unclear. TPFs were isolated from Tridax procumbens and investigated for their effects on osteoblasts differentiation and bone formation by using primary mouse calvarial osteoblasts. RESULTS: TPFs promoted osteoblast differentiation in a dose-dependent manner demonstrated by up-regulation of alkaline phosphatase and osteocalcin. TPFs also upregulated osteoblast differentiation related genes, including osteocalcin, osterix, and Runx2 in primary osteoblasts. TPFs treated primary osteoblast cells showed significant upregulation of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) including Bmp-2, Bmp-4, and Bmp-7. Addition of noggin, a BMP specific-antagonist, inhibited TPFs induced upregulation of the osteocalcin, osterix, and Runx2. CONCLUSION: Our findings point towards the induction of osteoblast differentiation by TPFs and suggested that TPFs could be a potential anabolic agent to treat patients with bone loss-associated diseases such as osteoporosis.

Serotonin regulates osteoblast proliferation and function in vitro

The monoamine serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), a well-known neurotransmitter, also has important functions outside the central nervous system. The objective of this study was to investigate the role of 5-HT in the proliferation, differentiation, and function of osteoblasts in vitro. We treated rat primary calvarial osteoblasts with various concentrations of 5-HT (1 nM to 10 µM) and assessed the rate of osteoblast proliferation, expression levels of osteoblast-specific proteins and genes, and the ability to form mineralized nodules. Next, we detected which 5-HT receptor subtypes were expressed in rat osteoblasts at different stages of osteoblast differentiation. We found that 5-HT could inhibit osteoblast proliferation, differentiation, and mineralization at low concentrations, but this inhibitory effect was mitigated at relatively high concentrations. Six of the 5-HT receptor subtypes (5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, and 5-HT2C) were found to exist in rat osteoblasts. Of these, 5-HT2A and 5-HT1B receptors had the highest expression levels, at both early and late stages of differentiation. Our results indicated that 5-HT can regulate osteoblast proliferation and function in vitro.

Adenovirus-mediated siRNA targeting TNF-α and overexpression of bone morphogenetic protein-2 promotes early osteoblast differentiation on a cell model of Ti particle-induced inflammatory response in vitro

Wear particles are phagocytosed by macrophages and other inflammatory cells, resulting in cellular activation and release of proinflammatory factors, which cause periprosthetic osteolysis and subsequent aseptic loosening, the most common causes of total joint arthroplasty failure. During this pathological process, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) plays an important role in wear-particle-induced osteolysis. In this study, recombination adenovirus (Ad) vectors carrying both target genes [TNF-α small interfering RNA (TNF-α-siRNA) and bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2)] were synthesized and transfected into RAW264.7 macrophages and pro-osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells, respectively. The target gene BMP-2, expressed on pro-osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells and silenced by the TNF-α gene on cells, was treated with titanium (Ti) particles that were assessed by real-time PCR and Western blot. We showed that recombinant adenovirus (Ad-siTNFα-BMP-2) can induce osteoblast differentiation when treated with conditioned medium (CM) containing RAW264.7 macrophages challenged with a combination of Ti particles and Ad-siTNFα-BMP-2 (Ti-ad CM) assessed by alkaline phosphatase activity. The receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand was downregulated in pro-osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells treated with Ti-ad CM in comparison with conditioned medium of RAW264.7 macrophages challenged with Ti particles (Ti CM). We suggest that Ad-siTNFα-BMP-2 induced osteoblast differentiation and inhibited osteoclastogenesis on a cell model of a Ti particle-induced inflammatory response, which may provide a novel approach for the treatment of periprosthetic osteolysis.

Overexpression of hsa-miR-125b during osteoblastic differentiation does not influence levels of Runx2, osteopontin, and ALPL gene expression

Multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) were first isolated from bone marrow and then from various adult tissues including placenta, cord blood, deciduous teeth, and amniotic fluid. MSCs are defined or characterized by their ability to adhere to plastic, to express specific surface antigens, and to differentiate into osteogenic, chondrogenic, adipogenic, and myogenic lineages. Although the molecular mechanisms that control MSC proliferation and differentiation are not well understood, the involvement of microRNAs has been reported. In the present study, we investigated the role of miR-125b during osteoblastic differentiation in humans. We found that miR-125b increased during osteoblastic differentiation, as well as Runx2 and ALPL genes. To study whether the gain or loss of miR-125b function influenced osteoblastic differentiation, we transfected MSCs with pre-miR-125b or anti-miR-125b and cultured the transfected cells in an osteoblastic differentiation medium. After transfection, no change was observed in osteoblastic differentiation, and Runx2, OPN, and ALPL gene expression were not changed. These results suggest that the gain or loss of miR-125b function does not influence levels of Runx2, OPN, and ALPL during osteoblastic differentiation.

Addition of bone morphogenetic protein type 2 to ascorbate and β-glycerophosphate supplementation did not enhance osteogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells

Bone morphogenetic protein type 2 (BMP-2) is a potent local factor, which promotes bone formation and has been used as an osteogenic supplement for mesenchymal stem cells. OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the effect of a recombinant BMP-2 as well as the endogenous BMP-4 and BMP-7 in the osteogenic differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) in medium supplemented with ascorbate and β-glycerophosphate. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Human ASCs were treated with osteogenic medium in the presence (ASCs+OM+BMP-2) or absence (ASCs+OM) of BMP-2. The alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity was determined and the extracellular matrix mineralization was evaluated by Von Kossa staining and calcium quantification. The expressions of BMP-4, BMP-7, Smad1, Smad4, and phosphorylated Smad1/5/8 were analyzed by western blotting. Relative mRNA expressions of Smad1, BMP receptor type II (BMPR-II), osteonectin, and osteocalcin were evaluated by qPCR. Results: ASCs+OM demonstrated the highest expression of BMP-4 and BMP-7 at days 21 and 7, respectively, the highest levels of BMPR-II mRNA expression at day 28, and the highest levels of Smad1 mRNA at days 14 and 28. ASCs+OM+BMP-2 demonstrated the highest levels of Smad1 mRNA expression at days 1, 7, and 21, the highest expression of Smad1 at day 7, the highest expression of Smad4 at day 14, the highest ALP activity at days 14 and 21, and expression of phosphorylated Smad1/5/8 at day 7. ASCs+OM and ASCs+OM+BMP2 showed similar ALP activity at days 7 and 28, similar osteonectin and osteocalcin mRNA expression at all time periods, and similar calcium depositions at all time periods. CONCLUSIONS: We concluded that human ASCs expressed endogenous BMP-4 and BMP-7. Moreover, the supplementation of ASCs with BMP-2 did not increase the level of osteogenic markers in the initial (ALP activity), intermediate (osteonectin and osteocalcin), or final (calcium deposition) phases, suggesting that the exogenous addition of BMP-2 did not improve the in vitro osteogenesis process of human ASCs.

Tissue transglutaminase (TG2) activity regulates osteoblast differentiation and mineralization in the SAOS-2 cell line

Tissue transglutaminase (type II, TG2) has long been postulated to directly promote skeletal matrix calcification and play an important role in ossification. However, limited information is available on the expression, function and modulating mechanism of TG2 during osteoblast differentiation and mineralization. To address these issues, we cultured the well-established human osteosarcoma cell line SAOS-2 with osteo-inductive conditioned medium and set up three time points (culture days 4, 7, and 14) to represent different stages of SAOS-2 differentiation. Osteoblast markers, mineralization, as well as TG2 expression and activity, were then assayed in each stage. Furthermore, we inhibited TG activity with cystamine and then checked SAOS-2 differentiation and mineralization in each stage. The results showed that during the progression of osteoblast differentiation SAOS-2 cells presented significantly high levels of osteocalcin (OC) mRNA, bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) and collagen I, significantly high alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, and the increased formation of calcified matrix. With the same tendency, TG2 expression and activity were up-regulated. Furthermore, inhibition of TG activity resulted in a significant decrease of OC, collagen I, and BMP-2 mRNA and of ALP activity and mineralization. This study demonstrated that TG2 is involved in osteoblast differentiation and may play a role in the initiation and regulation of the mineralization processes. Moreover, the modulating effects of TG2 on osteoblasts may be related to BMP-2.

Taurine inhibits serum deprivation-induced osteoblast apoptosis via the taurine transporter/ERK signaling pathway

Taurine has positive effects on bone metabolism. However, the effects of taurine on osteoblast apoptosis in vitro have not been reported. The aim of this study was to investigate the activity of taurine on apoptosis of mouse osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells. The data showed that 1, 5, 10, or 20 mM taurine resulted in 16.7, 34.2, 66.9, or 63.75 percent reduction of MC3T3-E1 cell apoptosis induced by the serum deprivation (serum-free α-MEM), respectively. Taurine (1, 5, or 10 mM) also reduced cytochrome c release and inhibited activation of caspase-3 and -9, which were measured using fluorogenic substrates for caspase-3/caspase-9, in serum-deprived MC3T3-E1 cells. Furthermore, taurine (10 mM) induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation in MC3T3-E1 cells. Knockdown of the taurine transporter (TAUT) or treatment with the ERK-specific inhibitor PD98059 (10 μM) blocked the activation of ERK induced by taurine (10 mM) and abolished the anti-apoptotic effect of taurine (10 mM) in MC3T3-E1 cells. The present results demonstrate for the first time that taurine inhibits serum deprivation-induced osteoblast apoptosis via the TAUT/ERK signaling pathway.

Oxidative nanopatterning of titanium surfaces promotes production and extracellular accumulation of osteopontin

The bone-biomaterial interface has been characterized by layers of afibrillar extracellular matrix (ECM) enriched in non collagenous proteins, including osteopontin (OPN), a multifunctional protein that in bone controls cell adhesion and ECM mineralization. Physical and chemical aspects of biomaterial surfaces have been demonstrated to affect cell-ECM-substrate interactions. The present paper described the ability of oxidative nanopatterning of titanium (Ti) surfaces to control extracellular OPN deposition in vitro. Ti discs were chemically treated by a mixture of H2SO4/H2O2 for either 30 min [Nano(30') Ti] or 4 h [Nano(4h) Ti]. Non-etched Ti discs were used as control. Primary osteogenic cells derived from newborn rat calvarial bone were plated on control and etched Ti and grown under osteogenic conditions up to 7 days. High resolution scanning electron microscopy revealed that treated Ti discs exhibited a nanoporous surface and that areas of larger nanopits were noticed only for Nano(4h) Ti. Large extracellular OPN accumulation were detectable only for Nano(4h) Ti, which was associated with OPN-positive cells with typical aspects of migrating cells. At day 3, quantitative results in terms of areas of OPN labeling were as follows: Nano(4h) Ti > Nano(30') Ti > Control Ti. In conclusion, chemically nanostructured Ti surfaces may support the enhancement of endogenous extracellular OPN deposition by osteogenic cells in vitro depending on the etching time, a finding that should be taken into consideration in strategies to biofunctionalize implant surfaces with molecules with cell adhesion capacity.

A interface osso-implante é caracterizada pela presença de uma camada de matriz extracellular (MEC) afibrilar rica em proteínas não-colágenas, incluindo osteopontina (OPN), cujas funções no tecido ósseo estão relacionadas à adesão celular e ao controle do processo de mineralização da MEC (crescimento de cristais). Aspectos físicos e químicos das superfícies de biomateriais podem afetar as interações célula-MEC-substrato. O objetivo do presente estudo foi demonstrar a capacidade de aspectos nanotopográficos de superfície de titânio (Ti) de controlar a deposição extracelular de OPN in vitro. Discos de Ti foram tratados quimicamente por solução de H2SO4/H2O2 durante 30 min [Nano(30') Ti] ou 4 h [Nano(4h) Ti]. Superfícies de Ti não tratadas foram usadas como controle. Células osteogênicas primárias derivadas de calvárias de ratos recém-nascidos foram plaqueadas sobre os discos de Ti e cultivadas em condições osteogênicas por até 7 dias. Microscopia eletrônica de varredura de alta resolução revelou que os discos de Ti tratados quimicamente exibiam superfície nanoporosa, com áreas de nanoporos maiores para Nano(4h) Ti. Apenas para esse grupo detectavam-se acúmulos extensos de OPN extracelular, os quais se distribuíam em áreas adjacentes a células OPN-positivas, com aspectos morfológicos típicos de células em migração. Em conclusão, a nanoestruturação química de superfície de Ti pode favorecer o aumento da deposição extracelular de OPN endógena por células osteogênicas in vitro, dependendo do tempo de condicionamento utilizado, o que deve ser considerado no desenvolvimento de estratégias para funcionalizar superfícies de implantes com moléculas com reconhecido efeito no processo de adesão celular.

Effects of low-level laser therapy on human osteoblastic cells grown on titanium

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) by using gallium aluminum arsenide (GaAlAs) diode laser on human osteoblastic cells grown on titanium (Ti). Osteoblastic cells were obtained by enzymatic digestion of human alveolar bone and cultured on Ti discs for up to 17 days. Cells were exposed to LLLT at 3 J/cm2 (wavelength of 780 nm) at days 3 and 7 and non-irradiated cultures were used as control. LLLT treatment did not influence culture growth, ALP activity, and mineralized matrix formation. Analysis of cultures by epifluorescence microscopy revealed an area without cells in LLLT treated cultures, which was repopulated latter with proliferative and less differentiated cells. Gene expression of ALP, OC, BSP, and BMP-7 was higher in LLLT treated cultures, while Runx2, OPN, and OPG were lower. These results indicate that LLLT modulates cell responses in a complex way stimulating osteoblastic differentiation, which suggests possible benefits on implant osseointegration despite a transient deleterious effect immediately after laser irradiation.

Este estudo teve como objetivo investigar o efeito do laser diodo de gálio-alumínio-arsênio (GaAlAs) em células osteoblásticas humanas cultivadas sobre discos de Ti. Para tanto, células osteoblásticas foram obtidas por digestão enzimática de osso alveolar humano e cultivadas sobre discos de Ti por 17 dias. As células foram submetidas à irradiação no 3º e 7º dias na dose de 3 J/cm2 e comprimento de onda de 780 nm e células não irradiadas foram usadas como controle. A irradiação não alterou a proliferação celular, atividade de ALP e formação de matriz mineralizada. Microscopia por epifluorescência indicou que após 24 h da aplicação do laser, as culturas irradiadas apresentaram áreas sem células, que mais tarde foram repovoadas por células em fase de proliferação e menos diferenciadas. O laser aumentou a expressão gênica relativa da ALP, OC, BSP e BMP-7 e reduziu a de RUNX2, OPN e OPG. Os resultados indicam que a terapia com laser modula de forma complexa as respostas celulares, estimulando a diferenciação osteoblástica. Assim, é possível sugerir possíveis benefícios do laser na osseointegração de implantes de Ti apesar do efeito deletério às células imediatamente após a irradiação.

Osso liofilizado bovino não-desmineralizado com células-tronco mesenquimais para engenharia tecidual: estudo experimental em sítio heterotópico / Bovine non-demineralized lyophilized bone with mesenchymal stem cells for tissue engineering: experimental study in heterotopic site

Objetivo: Avaliar o uso de células da medula óssea, com potencial osteogênico, agregadas a estrutura tridimensional de osso liofilizado bovino não-desmineralizado para engenharia tecidual óssea. Método: Os animais doadores de células da medula óssea, assim como os animais receptores dos construtos ósseos, foram camundongos de linhagem isogênica C57Bl/6. Utilizou-se modelo experimental heterotópico, com a implantação de construtos de osso liofilizado bovino não-desmineralizado (OL) no plano subcutâneo no dorso dos animais. Foram organizados 4 grupos de comparação (n=10 animais em cada grupo): 1) OL isoladamente (grupo controle); 2) OL + células mononucleares da medula (CMM); 3) OL + células-tronco mesenquimais (CTM); 4) OL + células-tronco mesenquimais diferenciadas em meio osteoindutor (CTMdif). A aferição foi realizada após 5 semanas, com avaliação histológica e determinação da atividade de fosfatase alcalina. Resultados: A avaliação histológica não mostrou diferença entre os grupos de comparação, com a observação em todas as amostras de tecido conjuntivo fibroso rico em neovasos estendendo-se por entre as trabéculas ósseas, sem osteoblastos ou osteócitos viáveis e sem neoformação óssea. Os resultados da atividade de fosfatase alcalina também não mostraram diferença entre os grupos de comparação, com análise de variância entre os grupos mostrando p=0,867. Conclusões: Os resultados mostraram que, no modelo estudado e com os métodos utilizados, a adição de células da medula óssea com potencial osteogênico sobre estrutura de osso liofilizado bovino não-desmineralizado não agregou propriedades osteogênicas ao material. Este estudo não confirmou a perspectiva inicial de utilizá-lo como estrutura tridimensional e carreadora celular na engenharia tecidual óssea, sendo necessários estudos subseqüentes que o avaliem em outros modelos experimentais, e que explorem separadamente cada etapa metodológica que possa influir no sucesso da engenharia tecidual óssea.

Objective: To evaluate the use of bone marrow cells with osteogenic potential seeded on bovine nondemineralized lyophilized bone scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Method: Bone marrow cells donors, as well as the receptors of the bone constructs were C57BI/6 isogenic line mice. A heterotopic experimental model was used, with implantation of the constructs into subcutaneous pouches on the backs of the animals. Four comparison groups were set (n=10 animals each group): 1) LB alone (control group); 2) LB + marrow mononuclear cells (MMC); 3) LB + mesenchymal stem cells (MST); 4) LB + mesenchymal stem cells differentiated in osteoinductive medium (MSTdif). The constructs were harvested 5 weeks after implantation for histological analysis and alkaline phosphatase activity test. Results: The histological analysis did not show differences among the comparison groups. In all samples fibrous connective tissue rich in neovessels was observed extending through bone trabeculae, without viable osteoblasts or osteocytes and without new bone formation. Likewise, results of the alkaline phosphatase activity have not shown any difference among comparison groups, with the analysis of variance between groups showing p value=0.867. Conclusions: In this experimental model and with the methods used, the addition of bone marrow cells with osteogenic potential to a bovine non-demineralized lyophilized bone structure did not add osteogenic properties to the material. The initial perspective of using it as a scaffold for bone tissue engineering could not be confirmed, and further studies are required to assess it in other experimental models, and to explore separately each methodological step that might influence the success of bone tissue engineering.

Single photon emission computerized tomography in the evaluation of the osteoblastic activities of a new bone regeneration technique: analysis of 12 mandibular sites in six experimental pigs / La tomografía computarizada por emisión de fotón único en la evaluación de las actividades osteoblásticas de una nueva técnica de regeneración ósea: análisis de 12 sitios mandibulares en seis cerdos experimentales

OBJECTIVES: To utilize single photon emission computerized tomography performed in sequence to determine the osseo-integrating capabilities and osteoblastic activities of a new bone regeneration technique called the membrane - sandwich technique (Ogunsalu sandwich bone regenerating technique) and to compare the quality and quantity of bone formed by this bone regeneration unit to bone regeneration obtained by using the same particulate bone grafting material covered with interceed® (another type of bio-resorbable membrane). DESIGN AND METHOD: Single photon emission computerized tomography bone imaging was performed in sequence on the mandible of a total of 6 pigs on both the right and left side (total of 12 sites) at two and a half hours following the injection of technetium 99m methylene diphosphate. Imaging was performed using a Siemen Orbitar II gamma camera. The projection data was acquired in a 128 x 128 matrix over 180 arc and SPECT reconstruction was performed using a filtered back projector method with a Shepp-Logan Hanning filter and a cut-off frequency of 0.4. The surgical defect on one side of the jaw was treated with the sandwich unit with Bio-oss particulate bone within it, while the other side contained the same quantity of Bio-oss as in the left side but just covered with interceed® membrane. The osteoblastic uptake on the side with the classical sandwich was compared to the side with the particulate bone covered with interceed® membrane for dynamic physiological activities. The average activity for both sides was calculated and compared. RESULT: For all the 12 sites, osteoblastic activities were recorded and indicated that vascularized bone was formed at all the experimental sites. Autogenous bone graft was confirmed to be superior to xenograft using this sandwich technique. Furthermore, the osteoblastic activities on the sandwich side were seen to be more when compared with the control side (Interceed® side). CONCLUSION: The Ogunsalu sandwich bone regeneration technique has been successfully evaluated with SPECT which shows osteoblastic activity with formation of vascularized bone which integrates with the surrounding bone.

OBJETIVOS: Utilizar la tomografía computarizada por emisión de fotón único (TCEFU) realizada en secuencia, a fin de determinar la capacidad óseo-integradora y las actividades osteoblásticas de una nueva técnica de regeneración del hueso, denominada técnica de membrana-sándwich, y comparar la calidad y cantidad de hueso formado por esta unidad de regeneración ósea con la regeneración ósea obtenida mediante el mismo material de injerto de hueso particulado cubierto con interceed® (otro tipo de membrana bioreabsorbible). DISEÑO Y MÉTODO: Mediante TCEFU, se realizó un estudio de imágenes óseas en secuencia, de la mandíbula de un total de 6 cerdos, a los lados izquierdo y derecho (un total de 12 sitios) a las dos horas y media, luego de una inyección de difosfato de metileno marcado con tecnecio 99 m. El examen de imágenes fue realizado usando una cámara gamma Siemens Orbiter tipo II. Los datos de la proyección fueron adquiridos en una matriz de 128 x 128 sobre un arco de 180 y la reconstrucción con TCEFU se realizó usando un método de retroproyección filtrada, con un filtro Shepp-Logan-Hanning y una frecuencia de corte de 0.4. El defecto quirúrgico en un lado de la mandíbula fue tratado con la unidad de sándwich con hueso particulado bio-oss dentro, mientras que el otro lado contenía la misma cantidad de Bio-oss del lado izquierdo, pero cubierto con una membrana de interceed®. La respuesta osteoblástica en el lado con el sándwich clásico fue comparada con el lado del hueso particulado cubierto con la membrana de interceed® en cuanto a actividades fisiológicas dinámicas. La actividad promedio de ambos lados fue calculada y comparada. RESULTADO: En los 12 sitios, las actividades osteoblásticas fueron registradas de forma indicando que se formó hueso vascularizado en todos los sitios experimentales. Se confirmó que el injerto óseo autógeno es superior al xenoinjerto que usa esta técnica de sándwich. Además, se observó que las actividades osteoblásticas en el lado del sándwich eran más en comparación con el lado control (lado del interceed®). CONCLUSIÓN: La técnica de Ogunsalu para la regeneración ósea por "sándwich" o membrana inter-posicional, ha sido exitosamente evaluada mediante TCEFU, concluyéndose que la misma consiste en la actividad osteoblástica con formación de hueso vascularizado que se integra al hueso circundante.

The role of osteoblasts in regulating hematopoietic stem cell activity and tumor metastasis

Bone marrow stromal cells are critical regulators of hematopoiesis. Osteoblasts are part of the stromal cell support system in bone marrow and may be derived from a common precursor. Several studies suggested that osteoblasts regulate hematopoiesis, yet the entire mechanism is not understood. It is clear, however, that both hematopoietic precursors and osteoblasts interact for the production of osteoclasts and the activation of resorption. We observed that hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) regulate osteoblastic secretion of various growth factors, and that osteoblasts express some soluble factors exclusively in the presence of HSCs. Osteoblasts and hematopoietic cells are closely associated with each other in the bone marrow, suggesting a reciprocal relationship between them to develop the HSC niche. One critical component regulating the niche is stromal-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) and its receptor CXCR4 which regulates stem cell homing and, as we have recently demonstrated, plays a crucial role in facilitating those tumors which metastasize to bone. Osteoblasts produce abundant amounts of SDF-1 and therefore osteoblasts play an important role in metastasis. These findings are discussed in the context of the role of osteoblasts in marrow function in health and disease.