The Fibronectin-ILT3 Interaction Functions as a Stromal Checkpoint that Suppresses Myeloid Cells.

Suppressive myeloid cells inhibit antitumor immunity by preventing T-cell responses. Immunoglobulin-like transcript 3 (ILT3; also known as LILRB4) is highly expressed on tumor-associated myeloid cells and promotes their suppressive phenotype. However, the ligand that engages ILT3 within the tumor microenvironment and renders tumor-associated myeloid cells suppressive is unknown. Using a screening approach, we identified fibronectin as a functional ligand for ILT3. The interaction of fibronectin with ILT3 polarized myeloid cells toward a suppressive state, and these effects were reversed with an ILT3-specific antibody that blocked the interaction of ILT3 with fibronectin. Furthermore, ex vivo treatment of human tumor explants with anti-ILT3 reprogrammed tumor-associated myeloid cells toward a stimulatory phenotype. Thus, the ILT3-fibronectin interaction represents a "stromal checkpoint" through which the extracellular matrix actively suppresses myeloid cells. By blocking this interaction, tumor-associated myeloid cells may acquire a stimulatory phenotype, potentially resulting in increased antitumor T-cell responses.

Elevated Serum Amino Acids Induce a Subpopulation of Alpha Cells to Initiate Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumor Formation.

The cellular origin of sporadic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs) is obscure. Hormone expression suggests that these tumors arise from glucagon-producing alpha cells or insulin-producing ß cells, but instability in hormone expression prevents linage determination. We utilize loss of hepatic glucagon receptor (GCGR) signaling to drive alpha cell hyperproliferation and tumor formation to identify a cell of origin and dissect mechanisms that drive progression. Using a combination of genetically engineered Gcgr knockout mice and GCGR-inhibiting antibodies, we show that elevated plasma amino acids drive the appearance of a proliferative population of SLC38A5+ embryonic progenitor-like alpha cells in mice. Further, we characterize tumors from patients with rare bi-allelic germline GCGR loss-of-function variants and find prominent tumor-cell-associated expression of the SLC38A5 paralog SLC7A8 as well as markers of active mTOR signaling. Thus, progenitor cells arise from adult alpha cells in response to metabolic signals and, when inductive signals are chronically present, drive tumor initiation.

Antibody-mediated inhibition of GDF15-GFRAL activity reverses cancer cachexia in mice.

Cancer cachexia is a highly prevalent condition associated with poor quality of life and reduced survival1. Tumor-induced perturbations in the endocrine, immune and nervous systems drive anorexia and catabolic changes in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, hallmarks of cancer cachexia2-4. However, the molecular mechanisms driving cachexia remain poorly defined, and there are currently no approved drugs for the condition. Elevation in circulating growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) correlates with cachexia and reduced survival in patients with cancer5-8, and a GDNF family receptor alpha like (GFRAL)-Ret proto-oncogene (RET) signaling complex in brainstem neurons that mediates GDF15-induced weight loss in mice has recently been described9-12. Here we report a therapeutic antagonistic monoclonal antibody, 3P10, that targets GFRAL and inhibits RET signaling by preventing the GDF15-driven interaction of RET with GFRAL on the cell surface. Treatment with 3P10 reverses excessive lipid oxidation in tumor-bearing mice and prevents cancer cachexia, even under calorie-restricted conditions. Mechanistically, activation of the GFRAL-RET pathway induces expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism in adipose tissues, and both peripheral chemical sympathectomy and loss of adipose triglyceride lipase protect mice from GDF15-induced weight loss. These data uncover a peripheral sympathetic axis by which GDF15 elicits a lipolytic response in adipose tissue independently of anorexia, leading to reduced adipose and muscle mass and function in tumor-bearing mice.

Palmoplantar Keratoderma in Slurp2-Deficient Mice.

SLURP1, a member of the lymphocyte antigen 6 protein family, is secreted by suprabasal keratinocytes. Mutations in SLURP1 cause a palmoplantar keratoderma (PPK) known as mal de Meleda. SLURP2, another secreted lymphocyte antigen 6 protein, is encoded by a gene located ?20 kb downstream from SLURP1. SLURP2 is produced by suprabasal keratinocytes. To investigate the importance of SLURP2, we first examined Slurp2 knockout mice in which exon 2-3 sequences had been replaced with lacZ and neo cassettes. Slurp2(-/-) mice exhibited hyperkeratosis on the volar surface of the paws (i.e., palmoplantar keratoderma), increased keratinocyte proliferation, and an accumulation of lipid droplets in the stratum corneum. They also exhibited reduced body weight and hind limb clasping. These phenotypes are similar to those of Slurp1(-/-) mice. To solidify a link between Slurp2 deficiency and palmoplantar keratoderma and to be confident that the disease phenotypes in Slurp2(-/-) mice were not secondary to the effects of the lacZ and neo cassettes on Slurp1 expression, we created a new line of Slurp2 knockout mice (Slurp2X(-/-)) in which Slurp2 was inactivated with a simple nonsense mutation. Slurp2X(-/-) mice exhibited the same disease phenotypes. Thus, Slurp2 deficiency and Slurp1 deficiencies cause the same disease phenotypes.

Palmoplantar keratoderma along with neuromuscular and metabolic phenotypes in Slurp1-deficient mice.

Mutations in SLURP1 cause mal de Meleda, a rare palmoplantar keratoderma (PPK). SLURP1 is a secreted protein that is expressed highly in keratinocytes but has also been identified elsewhere (e.g., spinal cord neurons). Here, we examined Slurp1-deficient mice (Slurp1(-/-)) created by replacing exon 2 with ß-gal and neo cassettes. Slurp1(-/-) mice developed severe PPK characterized by increased keratinocyte proliferation, an accumulation of lipid droplets in the stratum corneum, and a water barrier defect. In addition, Slurp1(-/-) mice exhibited reduced adiposity, protection from obesity on a high-fat diet, low plasma lipid levels, and a neuromuscular abnormality (hind-limb clasping). Initially, it was unclear whether the metabolic and neuromuscular phenotypes were due to Slurp1 deficiency, because we found that the targeted Slurp1 mutation reduced the expression of several neighboring genes (e.g., Slurp2, Lypd2). We therefore created a new line of knockout mice (Slurp1X(-/-) mice) with a simple nonsense mutation in exon 2. The Slurp1X mutation did not reduce the expression of adjacent genes, but Slurp1X(-/-) mice exhibited all of the phenotypes observed in the original line of knockout mice. Thus, Slurp1 deficiency in mice elicits metabolic and neuromuscular abnormalities in addition to PPK.

miR-221/222 targets adiponectin receptor 1 to promote the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in breast cancer.

The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a highly conserved physiological program involved in development and tissue repair; however, its aberrant activation has been implicated in accelerating the progression of a variety of cancers. In breast cancer, the microRNAs (miRNAs) miR-221 and miR-222 (miR-221/222) are differentially expressed in the clinically more aggressive basal-like subtype compared to luminal subtype of breast cancer and upregulation of miR-221/222 induces the EMT by targeting the 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) of the GATA family transcriptional repressor TRPS1 (tricho-rhino-phalangeal syndrome type 1). The complete mechanism through which miR-221/222 promotes the EMT, however, is not fully understood. We identified adiponectin receptor 1 (ADIPOR1), a receptor for the adipocytokine adiponectin, as a direct target of miR-221/222. ADIPOR1 is expressed at higher levels in the luminal compared to the basal-like subtype of breast cancer cell lines, which can be reduced by miR-221/222 targeting of its 3'UTR. In addition, miR-221/222 were negatively correlated with ADIPOR1 expression across breast cancer cell lines and tumors. ADIPOR1 depletion by siRNA in MCF10A cells induced the EMT and increased cell invasion. Depletion of ADIPOR1 by siRNA induced activation of the canonical nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) and subsequent phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in an interleukin 6 (IL6)-dependent manner. Finally, overexpression of ADIPOR1 in the basal-like cell line, MDA-MB-231, attenuated cell invasion and promoted the mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET). We conclude that ADIPOR1 negatively regulates EMT in breast cancer and provides an additional node by which miR-221/222 induces the EMT. These results suggest that ADIPOR1 may play an important role in breast cancer progression and metastasis, and could potentially offer an alternative therapeutic strategy for basal-like breast cancer patients.

Enhanced sensitivity of protein kinase B/Akt to insulin in hypoxia is independent of HIF1alpha and promotes cell viability.

Maintenance of oxygen homeostasis is a key requirement to ensure normal mammalian cell growth and differentiation. Hypoxia arises when oxygen demand exceeds supply, and is a feature of multiple human diseases including stroke, cancer and renal fibrosis. We have investigated the effect of hypoxia on kidney cells, and observed that insulin-induced cell viability is increased in hypoxia. We have characterized the role of protein kinase B (PKB/Akt) in these cells as a potential mediator of this effect. PKB/Akt activity was increased by low oxygen concentrations in kidney cells, and insulin-stimulated activation of PKB/Akt was stronger, more rapid and more sustained in hypoxia. Reduction of HIF1alpha levels using antimycin-A or siRNA targeting HIF1alpha did not affect PKB/Akt activation in hypoxia. Pharmacologic stabilization of HIF1alpha independent of hypoxia did not increase insulin-stimulated PKB/Akt activation. Although increased insulin-stimulated cell viability was observed in hypoxia, no differences in the degree of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake were observed in L6 muscle cells in hypoxia compared to normoxia. Thus, PKB/Akt may regulate specific cellular responses to growth factors such as insulin under adverse conditions such as hypoxia.