Tumor inflammation-associated neurotoxicity.

Cancer immunotherapies have unique toxicities. Establishment of grading scales and standardized grade-based treatment algorithms for toxicity syndromes can improve the safety of these treatments, as observed for cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and immune effector cell associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS) in patients with B cell malignancies treated with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy. We have observed a toxicity syndrome, distinct from CRS and ICANS, in patients treated with cell therapies for tumors in the central nervous system (CNS), which we term tumor inflammation-associated neurotoxicity (TIAN). Encompassing the concept of 'pseudoprogression,' but broader than inflammation-induced edema alone, TIAN is relevant not only to cellular therapies, but also to other immunotherapies for CNS tumors. To facilitate the safe administration of cell therapies for patients with CNS tumors, we define TIAN, propose a toxicity grading scale for TIAN syndrome and discuss the potential management of this entity, with the goal of standardizing both reporting and management.

Stereotactic radiosurgery for recurrent pediatric brain tumors: clinical outcomes and toxicity.

OBJECTIVE: Recurrence of brain tumors in children after the initial course of treatment remains a problem. This study evaluated the efficacy and safety of reirradiation using stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) in patients with recurrent pediatric primary brain tumors. METHODS: This IRB-approved retrospective review included pediatric patients with recurrent primary brain tumors treated at Stanford University from 2000 to 2019 using frameless SRS. Time to local failure (LF) and distant intracranial failure (DIF) were measured from the date of SRS and analyzed using competing risk analysis. Overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) were analyzed with the Kaplan-Meier method. RESULTS: In total, 37 patients aged 2-24 years (median age 11 years at recurrence) were treated for 48 intracranial tumors. Ependymoma (38%) and medulloblastoma (22%) were the most common tumor types. The median (range) single fraction equivalent dose of SRS was 16.4 (12-24) Gy. The median (range) follow-up time was 22.9 (1.5-190) months. The median OS of all patients was 36.8 months. Eight of 40 (20%) lesions with follow-up imaging locally recurred. The 2-year cumulative incidence of LF after reirradiation with SRS was 12.8% (95% CI 4.6%-25.4%). The 2-year cumulative incidence of DIF was 25.3% (95% CI 12.9%-39.8%). The median PFS was 18 months (95% CI 8.9-44). Five (10.4%) patients developed toxicities potentially attributed to SRS, including cognitive effects and necrosis. CONCLUSIONS: Reirradiation using SRS for recurrent pediatric brain tumors appears safe with good local control. Innovations that improve overall disease control should continue because survival outcomes after relapse remain poor.

GD2-CAR T cell therapy for H3K27M-mutated diffuse midline gliomas.

Diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) and other H3K27M-mutated diffuse midline gliomas (DMGs) are universally lethal paediatric tumours of the central nervous system1. We have previously shown that the disialoganglioside GD2 is highly expressed on H3K27M-mutated glioma cells and have demonstrated promising preclinical efficacy of GD2-directed chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells2, providing the rationale for a first-in-human phase I clinical trial (NCT04196413). Because CAR T cell-induced brainstem inflammation can result in obstructive hydrocephalus, increased intracranial pressure and dangerous tissue shifts, neurocritical care precautions were incorporated. Here we present the clinical experience from the first four patients with H3K27M-mutated DIPG or spinal cord DMG treated with GD2-CAR T cells at dose level 1 (1 × 106 GD2-CAR T cells per kg administered intravenously). Patients who exhibited clinical benefit were eligible for subsequent GD2-CAR T cell infusions administered intracerebroventricularly3. Toxicity was largely related to the location of the tumour and was reversible with intensive supportive care. On-target, off-tumour toxicity was not observed. Three of four patients exhibited clinical and radiographic improvement. Pro-inflammatory cytokine levels were increased in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid. Transcriptomic analyses of 65,598 single cells from CAR T cell products and cerebrospinal fluid elucidate heterogeneity in response between participants and administration routes. These early results underscore the promise of this therapeutic approach for patients with H3K27M-mutated DIPG or spinal cord DMG.

Machine-Learning Approach to Differentiation of Benign and Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors: A Multicenter Study.

BACKGROUND: Clinicoradiologic differentiation between benign and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNSTs) has important management implications. OBJECTIVE: To develop and evaluate machine-learning approaches to differentiate benign from malignant PNSTs. METHODS: We identified PNSTs treated at 3 institutions and extracted high-dimensional radiomics features from gadolinium-enhanced, T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences. Training and test sets were selected randomly in a 70:30 ratio. A total of 900 image features were automatically extracted using the PyRadiomics package from Quantitative Imaging Feature Pipeline. Clinical data including age, sex, neurogenetic syndrome presence, spontaneous pain, and motor deficit were also incorporated. Features were selected using sparse regression analysis and retained features were further refined by gradient boost modeling to optimize the area under the curve (AUC) for diagnosis. We evaluated the performance of radiomics-based classifiers with and without clinical features and compared performance against human readers. RESULTS: A total of 95 malignant and 171 benign PNSTs were included. The final classifier model included 21 imaging and clinical features. Sensitivity, specificity, and AUC of 0.676, 0.882, and 0.845, respectively, were achieved on the test set. Using imaging and clinical features, human experts collectively achieved sensitivity, specificity, and AUC of 0.786, 0.431, and 0.624, respectively. The AUC of the classifier was statistically better than expert humans (P = .002). Expert humans were not statistically better than the no-information rate, whereas the classifier was (P = .001). CONCLUSION: Radiomics-based machine learning using routine MRI sequences and clinical features can aid in evaluation of PNSTs. Further improvement may be achieved by incorporating additional imaging sequences and clinical variables into future models.

Effects of Age on White Matter Microstructure in Children With Neurofibromatosis Type 1.

Children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) often report cognitive challenges, though the etiology of such remains an area of active investigation. With the advent of treatments that may affect white matter microstructure, understanding the effects of age on white matter aberrancies in NF1 becomes crucial in determining the timing of such therapeutic interventions. A cross-sectional study was performed with diffusion tensor imaging from 18 NF1 children and 26 age-matched controls. Fractional anisotropy was determined by region of interest analyses for both groups over the corpus callosum, cingulate, and bilateral frontal and temporal white matter regions. Two-way analyses of variance were done with both ages combined and age-stratified into early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Significant differences in fractional anisotropy between NF1 and controls were seen in the corpus callosum and frontal white matter regions when ages were combined. When stratified by age, we found that this difference was largely driven by the early childhood (1-5.9 years) and middle childhood (6-11.9 years) age groups, whereas no significant differences were appreciable in the adolescence age group (12-18 years). This study demonstrates age-related effects on white matter microstructure disorganization in NF1, suggesting that the appropriate timing of therapeutic intervention may be in early childhood.

Neurofibromatosis 2 in children presenting during the first decade of life.

OBJECTIVE: To educate providers to recognize the clinical presentation of neurofibromatosis 2 (NF2) in young children. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of 22 children with NF2 from 4 tertiary care NF referral centers was performed. Age and signs/symptoms at initial presentation, age at NF2 diagnosis, family history, clinical/radiographic NF2 features, NF2 genetic testing results, and treatments were assessed. RESULTS: The average age at initial clinical presentation was 48.1 months, while the average age at NF2 diagnosis was 77.2 months. Children with a family history of NF2 (23%) tended to present earlier (mean 39.2 vs 50.7 months) and have shorter times to NF2 diagnosis (mean 1.6 vs 37.2 months). Vision/eye complaints (n = 9; 41%) were the most commonly reported presenting signs/symptoms. Meningiomas (n = 7; 32%) and ocular abnormalities (n = 5; 23%) were the most frequently identified initial NF2 features. Vestibular (n = 17; 77%) and peripheral (n = 15; 68%) schwannomas were the most common abnormalities encountered over the study period. Seventeen (77%) children required treatment, most frequently for vestibular schwannomas (n = 9; 41%), peripheral schwannomas (n = 7; 32%), and meningiomas (n = 7; 32%). Genetic testing was available for 13 individuals, in whom nonsense mutations were most commonly identified (n = 7; 54%). CONCLUSIONS: Although uncommon, a substantial number of individuals with NF2 come to medical attention in early childhood. The finding of meningioma or characteristic ocular abnormalities (retinal hamartomas and epiretinal membranes) in young children should raise clinical suspicion for NF2 and prompt immediate referral to appropriate specialists for diagnosis and management.

Surgical outcomes of pediatric spinal cord astrocytomas: systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Pediatric spinal astrocytomas are rare spinal lesions that pose unique management challenges. Therapeutic options include gross-total resection (GTR), subtotal resection (STR), and adjuvant chemotherapy or radiation therapy. With no randomized controlled trials, the optimal management approach for children with spinal astrocytomas remains unclear. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis on pediatric spinal astrocytomas. METHODS: The authors performed a systematic review of the PubMed/MEDLINE electronic database to investigate the impact of histological grade and extent of resection on overall survival among patients with spinal cord astrocytomas. They retained publications in which the majority of reported cases included astrocytoma histology. RESULTS: Twenty-nine previously published studies met the eligibility criteria, totaling 578 patients with spinal cord astrocytomas. The spinal level of intramedullary spinal cord tumors was predominantly cervical (53.8%), followed by thoracic (40.8%). Overall, resection was more common than biopsy, and GTR was slightly more commonly achieved than STR (39.7% vs 37.0%). The reported rates of GTR and STR rose markedly from 1984 to 2015. Patients with high-grade astrocytomas had markedly worse 5-year overall survival than patients with low-grade tumors. Patients receiving GTR may have better 5-year overall survival than those receiving STR. CONCLUSIONS: The authors describe trends in the management of pediatric spinal cord astrocytomas and suggest a benefit of GTR over STR for 5-year overall survival.

Optic Pathway Gliomas in Neurofibromatosis Type 1.

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is one of the most common brain tumor predisposition syndromes, in which affected children are prone to the development of low-grade gliomas. While NF1-associated gliomas can be found in several brain regions, the majority arise in the optic nerves, chiasm, tracts, and radiations (optic pathway gliomas; OPGs). Owing to their location, 35-50% of affected children present with reduced visual acuity. Unfortunately, despite tumor stabilization following chemotherapy, vision does not improve in most children. For this reasons, more effective therapies are being sought that reflect a deeper understanding of the NF1 gene and the use of authenticated Nf1 genetically-engineered mouse strains. The implementation of these models for drug discovery and validation has galvanized molecularly-targeted clinical trials in children with NF1-OPG. Future research focused on defining the cellular and molecular factors that underlie optic glioma development and progression also has the potential to provide personalized risk assessment strategies for this pediatric population.

Brain Perfusion and Diffusion Abnormalities in Children Treated for Posterior Fossa Brain Tumors.

OBJECTIVE: To compare cerebral perfusion and diffusion in survivors of childhood posterior fossa brain tumor with neurologically normal controls and correlate differences with cognitive dysfunction. STUDY DESIGN: We analyzed retrospectively arterial spin-labeled cerebral blood flow (CBF) and apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) in 21 patients with medulloblastoma (MB), 18 patients with pilocytic astrocytoma (PA), and 64 neurologically normal children. We generated ANCOVA models to evaluate treatment effects on the cerebral cortex, thalamus, caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, hippocampus, amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and cerebral white matter at time points an average of 5.7 years after original diagnosis. A retrospective review of patient charts identified 12 patients with neurocognitive data and in whom the relationship between IQ and magnetic resonance imaging variables was assessed for each brain structure. RESULTS: Patients with MB (all treated with surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation) had significantly lower global CBF relative to controls (10%-23% lower, varying by anatomic region, all adjusted P?

Intellectual Outcome in Molecular Subgroups of Medulloblastoma.

Purpose To evaluate intellectual functioning and the implications of limiting radiation exposure in the four biologically distinct subgroups of medulloblastoma: wingless (WNT), sonic hedgehog (SHH), Group 3, and Group 4. Patients and Methods A total of 121 patients with medulloblastoma (n = 51, Group 4; n = 25, Group 3; n = 28, SHH; and n = 17, WNT), who were treated between 1991 and 2013 at the Hospital for Sick Children (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), Children's National Health System (Washington, DC), or the Lucile Packard Children's Hospital (Palo Alto, CA), had intellectual assessments. First, we compared intellectual trajectories between subgroups. Next, we evaluated the effect of treatment with reduced-dose craniospinal irradiation (CSI) plus a tumor bed boost versus treatments that deliver higher CSI doses and/or larger boost volumes to the brain (all other treatments) within subgroups. Linear mixed modeling was used to determine the stability or change in intelligence scores over time. Results Intellectual outcomes declined comparably in each subgroup except for processing speed; SHH declined less than Group 3 ( P = .04). SHH had the lowest incidence of cerebellar mutism and motor deficits. Treatment with reduced-dose CSI plus a tumor bed boost was associated with preserved intellectual functioning in WNT and Group 4 patients considered together (ie, subgroups containing patients who are candidates for therapy de-escalation), and not in Group 3 or SHH. Across all subgroups, patients in the all other treatments group declined over time (all P < .05). Conclusion SHH patients appear to have the most distinct functional (ie, motor deficits and mutism) outcomes and a unique processing speed trajectory. Only WNT and Group 4 patients seem to benefit from limiting radiation exposure. Our findings highlight the value of conducting subgroup-specific analyses, and can be used to inform novel biologically based treatment protocols for patients with medulloblastoma.

Headache as a risk factor for neurovascular events in pediatric brain tumor patients.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether severe recurrent headache is a risk factor for neurovascular events in children who received radiation for brain tumors. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study of children with brain tumors who received cranial irradiation at a large tertiary care center, aged 0-21 years at diagnosis, with initial treatment between January 1, 1993 and December 31, 2002, and 2 or more follow-up visits. Patients were considered to have severe recurrent headache if this appeared as a complaint on 2 or more visits. Headaches attributed to tumor progression, shunt malfunction, or infection, or appearing at the end of life, were excluded. Medical records were reviewed for events of stroke or TIA. RESULTS: Of 265 subjects followed for a median of 6.0 years (interquartile range 1.7-9.2 years), stroke or TIA occurred in 7/37 (19%) with severe headaches compared to 6/228 (3%) without these symptoms (hazard ratio 5.3, 95% confidence interval 1.8-15.9, p = 0.003). Adjusting for multiple variables did not remove the significance of this risk. Median time to first neurovascular event for the entire cohort was 4.9 years (interquartile range 1.7-5.5 years). CONCLUSIONS: Severe recurrent headache appears to be a risk factor or predictor for subsequent cerebral ischemia in pediatric brain tumor survivors treated with radiation. This finding has clinical implications for both monitoring survivors and targeting a specific population for primary stroke prevention.

Concurrent cyclophosphamide and craniospinal radiotherapy for pediatric high-risk embryonal brain tumors.

Embryonal tumors are an aggressive subtype of high-grade, pediatric central nervous system (CNS) tumors often with dismal survival rates. The 5-year survival for highest-risk embryonal tumors may be as low as 10 %. We report feasibility and efficacy from our experience using intravenous (IV) cyclophosphamide concurrently with craniospinal radiation (CSI) in high-risk embryonal CNS tumors of childhood. Ten consecutive children (aged: 3.5-15.5 years, median: 10.2 years, six male) with high-risk embryonal tumors, including: large cell/anaplastic medulloblastoma (6), atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor (1), and leptomeningeal primitive neuroectodermal tumor (3), were treated with IV cyclophosphamide 1 g/M(2) on days 1 and 2 of CSI. Following a median of 36 Gy CSI plus tumor boosts, adjuvant treatment consisted of 21 doses of oral etoposide (7) and alkylator based chemotherapy from five to eight cycles in all. Of the ten patients thus treated, six remain alive with no evidence of disease and four are deceased. Median survival was 3.3 years, with a 3-year progression-free survival of 50 % (5/10). Median follow-up was: 3.3 years (range: 5 months-12.9 years) in the five patients with progression, median time-to-progression was: 1.3 years (range: 1 month-3 years). Median follow-up in the patients without progression is 8.8 years (range: 3-12.9 years). Complications due to adjuvant chemotherapy were typical and included myelosupression (10), necessitating shortened duration of chemotherapy in three, and hemorrhagic cystitis (1). In high-risk embryonal CNS tumors, cyclophosphamide given concurrently with CSI is well tolerated. Early results suggest that a phase II trial is warranted.

Cranial irradiation increases risk of stroke in pediatric brain tumor survivors.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The purposes of this study were to determine the incidence of neurovascular events as late complications in pediatric patients with brain tumor and to evaluate radiation as a risk factor. METHODS: Patients were ascertained using the tumor database of a pediatric tertiary care center. Included patients had a primary brain tumor, age birth to 21 years, initial treatment January 1, 1993, to December 31, 2002, and at least 2 visits with neuro-oncology. Radiation exposure included: whole brain, whole brain plus a focal boost, or focal brain. The primary outcome was stroke or transient ischemic attack. RESULTS: Of 431 subjects, 14 had 19 events of stroke or transient ischemic attack over a median follow-up of 6.3 years. The incidence rate was 548/100 000 person-years. Overall, 61.5% of subjects received radiation, including 13 of 14 subjects with events. Median time from first radiation to first event was 4.9 years. The stroke/transient ischemic attack hazard ratio for any brain irradiation was 8.0 (95% CI, 1.05-62; P=0.045); for the circle of Willis, radiation was 9.0 (95% CI, 1.2-70; P=0.035); and for focal noncircle of Willis, radiation was 3.4 (95% CI, 0.21-55; P=0.38). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of neurovascular events in this population is 100-fold higher than in the general pediatric population and cranial irradiation is an important risk factor. By defining the incidence of this late effect, physicians are better able to counsel parents regarding treatment, monitor patients at risk, and target a population for primary stroke prevention in future studies.

Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytoma (SEGA) Treatment Update.

OPINION STATEMENT: Rates of regrowth after resection of subependymal giant cell astrocytoma (SEGA) are low, making surgical resection a successful and permanent therapeutic strategy. In addition to surgical resection of SEGAs, other treatment options now include medications and Gamma Knife™ therapy. Advising patients on medical versus surgical management of SEGAs is currently not easy. SEGAs have been reported to regrow if mTOR inhibitor therapy is stopped, raising the possibility that long-term medication may be required to prevent tumor growth and hydrocephalus. The question of regrowth following medication withdrawal will need to be addressed in more patients to help establish the optimal duration of therapy. The risks of surgery include acute morbidity and the permanent need for ventriculoperitoneal shunting, which must be balanced against the adverse effects of mTOR inhibitors, including immunosuppression (infections, mouth sores), hypercholesterolemia, and the need for chronic drug monitoring. Some additional benefits of mTOR inhibition in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex, however, may include shrinkage of angiofibromas and angiomyolipomas as well as a possible decrease in seizure burden. Recent reports of successful nonsurgical treatment of SEGAs are promising, and it is hoped that further specifics on dosing, duration, and long-term outcome will help patients and physicians to make informed therapeutic choices.Present treatment recommendations for SEGAs include routine surveillance neuroimaging and close clinical follow-up, paying particular attention to signs and symptoms of acute hydrocephalus. If symptoms arise, or if serial neuroimaging demonstrates tumor growth, neurosurgical intervention is recommended. When gross total resection is impossible, rapamycin and everolimus should be considered, but may not offer a durable response.

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis in children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To report the clinical features of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis in patients < or = 18 years old. METHODS: Information was obtained by the authors or referring physicians. Antibodies were determined by immunocytochemistry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using HEK293 cells ectopically expressing NR1. RESULTS: Over an 8-month period, 81 patients (12 male) with anti-NMDAR encephalitis were identified. Thirty-two (40%) were < or =18 years old (youngest 23 months, median 14 years); 6 were male. The frequency of ovarian teratomas was 56% in women >18 years old, 31% in girls < or =18 years old (p = 0.05), and 9% in girls < or =14 years old (p = 0.008). None of the male patients had tumors. Of 32 patients < or =18 years old, 87.5% presented with behavioral or personality change, sometimes associated with seizures and frequent sleep dysfunction; 9.5% with dyskinesias or dystonia; and 3% with speech reduction. On admission, 53% had severe speech deficits. Eventually, 77% developed seizures, 84% stereotyped movements, 86% autonomic instability, and 23% hypoventilation. Responses to immunotherapy were slow and variable. Overall, 74% had full or substantial recovery after immunotherapy or tumor removal. Neurological relapses occurred in 25%. At the last follow-up, full recovery occurred more frequently in patients who had a teratoma that was removed (5/8) than in those without a teratoma (4/23; p = 0.03). INTERPRETATION: Anti-NMDAR encephalitis is increasingly recognized in children, comprising 40% of all cases. Younger patients are less likely to have tumors. Behavioral and speech problems, seizures, and abnormal movements are common early symptoms. The phenotype resembles that of the adults, although dysautonomia and hypoventilation are less frequent or severe in children. Ann Neurol 2009;66:11-18.