Influence of diluent on antimicrobial activity of cinnamon bark essential oil vapor against Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enterica on a laboratory medium and beef jerky.

The influence of chemical diluents on the antimicrobial activity of plant essential oil (EO) vapors was evaluated. We first determined if vapors generated from 22 chemical diluents not containing EO had antimicrobial activities. Ethyl ether vapor retarded the growth of S. aureus. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and the minimal lethal concentrations (MLCs) of cinnamon bark EO vapor, which was diluted in and generated from 21 diluents, against S. aureus and S. enterica were determined. Cinnamon bark EO vapor showed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) lower MICs against S. aureus when diluted in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), ethanol, ethyl acetate, or jojoba oil, and against S. enterica when diluted in DMSO, ethanol, or jojoba oil, compared to those in other diluents. We compared antimicrobial activities of cinnamon bark EO vapor diluted in DMSO, ethanol, ethyl acetate, or jojoba oil against S. aureus and S. enterica on beef jerky as a food model. Antimicrobial activity was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher when vaporized from DMSO. These results indicate that antimicrobial activity of cinnamon bark EO vapor may vary significantly (P ≤ 0.05) depending on the type of diluent from which it is vaporized. These observations provide basic information when developing food and food-contact surface decontamination strategies using EO vapors.

Antimicrobial activities of plant essential oil vapours against Acidovorax citrulli and Xanthomonas campestris on Cucurbitaceae, Brassicaceae and Solanaceae seeds.

AIM: This study was done to develop a seed decontamination treatment for organic seeds against plant pathogens (Acidovorax citrulli and Xanthomonas campestris) using essential oil (EO) vapours without affecting the seeds' germination rate. METHODS AND RESULTS: By using a diffusion assay and determining minimum inhibitory and lethal concentrations, we screened two EO vapours which were most inhibitory to A. citrulli (cinnamon bark and garlic EO vapours) and X. campestris (onion and garlic EO vapours). After 48 h of exposure to EO vapours at 25°C and 43% or 85% relative humidity (RH), no significant decrease (p > 0.05) in germination rates was observed compared with those of control seeds. It was observed that EO vapour treatment at 25°C and 43% or 85% RH for 48 h caused significant population reductions (p ≤ 0.05) (ca. 0.3-2.6 log colony forming unit/g) compared to those of untreated seeds. CONCLUSION: Applications of EO vapours showed significant (p ≤ 0.05) antimicrobial effects against A. citrulli and X. campestris on both laboratory mediums and plant seeds without decreasing the germination rate of seeds. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study provides useful information for the development of natural seed sterilization treatments using EO vapours.

Antimicrobial activity of ClO2 gas against Salmonella Enteritidis on almonds.

Nuts, including almonds, are occasionally contaminated with Salmonella spp. In this study, we used chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas to inactivate S. enterica subsp. Enterica serovar Enteritidis on almonds. Almonds inoculated with a single strain of S. Enteritidis (8.95 log cfu/mL) were exposed to ClO2 gas generated from 1.0 or 1.5 mL ClO2 solution in a sealed container at 50 or 60 °C (43% relative humidity) for up to 10 h. The concentration of ClO2 gas peaked at 354-510 and 750-786 ppm within 0.5 h upon deposition of 1.0 and 1.5 mL of aqueous ClO2, respectively, and gradually decreased thereafter. Population of S. Enteritidis on almonds treated at 50 °C decreased to 1.70-2.32 log cfu/sample within 1 h of exposure to ClO2 gas and decreased to below the detection limit (1.7 log cfu/sample) at all ClO2 concentrations after 8 h. At 60 °C, the microbial population fell below the detection limit within 1 h, regardless of the volume of ClO2 solution supplied. Microbial survival on almonds treated with ClO2 gas and stored at 12 or 25 °C was observed for up to 8 weeks and the organism was not recovered from the almonds treated for 10 h and stored at 12 °C for 2-8 weeks. The lightness (L value) and redness (a value) of almonds treated for 10 h were not changed by ClO2 gas treatment, but yellowness (b value) increased. Results showed that Salmonella on almonds was successfully inactivated by ClO2 gas treatment and the microbial survival did not occur during storage.

Synergistic antimicrobial activity of oregano and thyme thymol essential oils against Leuconostoc citreum in a laboratory medium and tomato juice.

This study was done to identify combinations of essential oils (EOs) that elicit synergistic antimicrobial effects against Leuconostoc citreum, a spoilage bacterium in vegetable and fruit juices. Twenty-four EOs were tested for antimicrobial activity against L. citreum using an agar well diffusion assay. Ten EOs showed relatively strong antimicrobial activity. Among those, cinnamon bark, oregano, and thyme thymol EOs showed the strongest activity (minimal inhibitory concentration = 1.25 µL/mL). It was confirmed that a combination of oregano and thyme thymol EOs had a synergistic antimicrobial activity (fractional inhibitory concentration index = 0.3750) using a checkerboard assay. This combination also had a synergistic antimicrobial activity against L. citreum in tomato juice. An initial population of L. citreum in tomato juice (5.3 log CFU/mL) increased to ≥ 8.6 log CFU/mL within 48 h at 15 °C and 24 h at 25 °C. Populations reached 6.8-7.2 log CFU/mL in tomato juice containing either 0.156 mL/mL oregano or thyme thymol. However, in the presence of both EOs (0.156 µL/mL in total), populations of L. citreum were significantly lower (5.7-6.5 log CFU/mL) (P ≤ 0.05). Findings will be useful when developing non-thermal food preservation technologies to increase the shelf-life of juices and other foods not containing synthetic preservatives.

Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes using biofilms of non-pathogenic soil bacteria (Streptomyces spp.) on stainless steel under desiccated condition.

Of the 1648 microbial isolates from 133 soil samples collected from 30 diverse locations in the Republic of Korea, two isolates exhibited strong antilisterial activity and ability to grow to high populations (>8.0 log CFU/ml) in Bennett's broth. Isolates were identified as Streptomyces lactacystinicus (strain Samnamu 5-15) and Streptomyces purpureus (strain Chamnamu-sup 4-15). Both isolates formed biofilms on the surface of stainless steel coupons (SSCs) immersed in Bennett's broth within 24 h at 25 °C. Cells retained antilisterial activity after biofilm formation and showed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) enhanced resistance against dry conditions (43% relative humidity [RH]) compared to the cells not in biofilm. An initial population (ca. 3.2 log CFU/cm2) of Listeria monocytogenes inoculated on SSCs lacking Streptomyces biofilm decreased to 1.4 log CFU/cm2 within 48 h at 25 °C and 43% RH. In contrast, L. monocytogenes (3.3 log CFU/cm2) inoculated on SSCs containing Streptomyces biofilm decreased to populations below the theoretical detection limit (0.5 log CFU/cm2) within 24 h. The results indicate that biofilms formed by the Streptomyces spp. inhibitory to L. monocytogenes showed enhanced resistance to desiccation condition (43% RH) and effectively inhibited the growth of L. monocytogenes on the surfaces of SSCs. Antilisterial biofilms developed in this study may be applicable on desiccated environmental surfaces in food related environments such as food storage, handling, and processing facilities to enhance the microbiological safety of foods.

Synergistic antimicrobial activities of essential oil vapours against Penicillium corylophilum on a laboratory medium and beef jerky.

This study was done to determine the antifungal activities of essential oil (EO) vapours of 97 plants against Penicillium corylophilum and to test combinations of EO vapours for synergistic antifungal effects. Among 97 commercially available EOs extracted from plant parts, garlic, cinnamon bark, may chang (mountain pepper), citronella, thyme thymol, oregano, spearmint, and thyme linalool EO vapours exhibited relatively strong antifungal activities. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of these EO vapours were 0.0390-0.6250 µL/mL. A combination of cinnamon bark, citronella, and may chang EO vapours, as well as a combination of cinnamon bark and citronella EO vapours, showed synergistic inhibitory activities to P. corylophilum on a laboratory medium. A combination of cinnamon bark, citronella, and may chang EO vapours had synergistic activity in inhibiting growth of P. corylophilium on beef jerky. Observations reported here provide basic information valuable when developing strategies to inhibit the growth of P. corylophilum and possibly other moderately xerophilic molds on intermediate-moisture foods.

Development of non-pathogenic bacterial biofilms on the surface of stainless steel which are inhibitory to Salmonella enterica.

Non-pathogenic bacterial biofilms were developed on the surface of stainless steel possessing desiccation tolerance and antimicrobial activity against Salmonella enterica. Three bacteria exhibiting strong antimicrobial activities against S. enterica were isolated from various soils, foods, and food-contact surfaces. Isolates were identified as Pseudomonas extremorientalis (strain Lettuce-28), Paenibacillus peoriae (strain Lettuce-7), and Streptomyces cirratus (strain Geumsan-207). These bacteria grew rapidly and formed biofilms within 24 h on the surface of stainless steel coupons (SSCs) immersed in laboratory media (tryptic soy broth or Bennet's broth) at 25 °C. Cells in biofilms had enhanced tolerance to desiccation (exposure to 43% atmospheric relative humidity [RH]) and retained antimicrobial activity against S. enterica. Populations of S. enterica deposited on SSCs containing biofilm formed by Ps. extremorientalis strain Lettuce-28, for example, decreased by > 2.5 log CFU/coupon within 24 h at 25 °C and 43% RH, while the number of cells inoculated on SSCs lacking biofilm decreased by 1.5 log CFU/coupon. Antimicrobial activities of the three antagonistic bacteria against S. enterica persisted in desiccated biofilms. This study provides insights to developing strategies to inactivate Salmonella and perhaps other foodborne pathogens on abiotic surfaces using non-pathogenic antagonistic bacteria.

Halloysite Nanocapsules Containing Thyme Essential Oil: Preparation, Characterization, and Application in Packaging Materials.

Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs), which are natural nanomaterials, have a hollow tubular structure with about 15 nm inner and 50 nm outer diameters. Because of their tubular shape, HNTs loaded with various materials have been investigated as functional nanocapsules. In this study, thyme essential oil (TO) was encapsulated successfully in HNTs using vacuum pulling methods, followed by end-capping or a layer-by-layer surface coating process for complete encapsulation. Nanocapsules loaded with TO were mixed with flexographic ink and coated on a paper for applications as food packaging materials. Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy were used to characterize the morphology of the nanocapsules and to confirm the TO loading of the nanocapsules. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analyses analysis were used to complement the structural information. In addition, the controlled release of TO from the nanocapsules showed sustained release properties over a period of many days. The results reveal that the release properties of TO in these nanocapsules could be controlled by surface modifications such as end-capping and/or surface coating of bare nanocapsules. The packaging paper with TO-loaded HNT capsules was effective in eliminating against Escherichia coli during the first 5 d and showed strong antibacterial activity for about 10 d.

Inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus by antimicrobial biofilms formed by competitive exclusion microorganisms on stainless steel.

The goal of this study was to develop a desiccation resistant antimicrobial surface using biofilm of competitive exclusion (CE) microorganism inhibitory to Staphylococcus aureus. We isolated 161 microorganisms from soils, foods, and food-contact surfaces that are inhibitory to S. aureus. Among them, three CE microorganisms (Streptomyces spororaveus strain Gaeunsan-18, Bacillus safensis strain Chamnamu-sup 5-25, and Pseudomonas azotoformans strain Lettuce-9) exhibiting strong antibacterial activity and high growth rates were selected for evaluation. These isolates formed biofilms within 24h on stainless steel coupons (SSCs) immersed in Bennet's broth and tryptic soy broth at 25°C. Cells in these biofilms showed significantly (P≤0.05) enhanced resistance to a desiccation (43% relative humidity [RH]) compared to those attached to SSCs but not in biofilms. The antimicrobial activities of biofilms formed by these isolates on SSCs against S. aureus at 25°C and 43% RH were determined. Compared to SSCs lacking biofilms formed by CE microorganisms, populations of S. aureus on SSCs harboring CE biofilms were significantly lower (P≤0.05). Results indicate that persistent antimicrobial activity against S. aureus on stainless steel surfaces can be achieved by the presence of biofilms of CE microorganisms. This information will be useful when developing strategies to improve the microbiological safety of foods during storage, processing, and distribution by facilitating the development of effective antimicrobial food-contact surfaces.

Efficacy of gaseous chlorine dioxide in inactivating Bacillus cereus spores attached to and in a biofilm on stainless steel.

We evaluated the lethal activity of gaseous chlorine dioxide (ClO2) against Bacillus cereus spores attached to and in biofilm formed on a stainless steel surface. Aqueous ClO2 was prepared by mixing sulfuric acid (5% w/v) with sodium chlorite (10mg/mL), and gaseous ClO2 was produced by vaporization of aqueous ClO2 in an air-tight container. The concentration of gaseous ClO2 in the air within the container increased rapidly at first but gradually decreased over time. The lethality of gaseous ClO2 against B. cereus spores attached to stainless steel coupons (SSCs) and in biofilm formed by the pathogen on SSCs was determined. The B. cereus spores attached to SSCs (5.3±0.1logCFU/coupon) were completely inactivated within 1h at 25°C when treated with gaseous ClO2 (peak concentration: 115.3±5.0 parts per million [ppm]). The total number of vegetative cells and spores in biofilm formed by B. cereus on SSCs was 5.9±0.3logCFU/coupon; the spore count was 5.3±0.1logCFU/coupon. The vegetative cells and spores in biofilm were completely inactivated within 6h (peak concentration: 115.3±5.0ppm). Results show that B. cereus spores in biofilms are more resistant to gaseous ClO2 than are attached spores not in biofilms. Gaseous ClO2 was, nevertheless, very effective in killing B. cereus spores in biofilm on the surface of stainless steel. Results show promise for application of gaseous ClO2 to enhance the microbiological safety of foods that may come in contact with stainless steel and possibly other hard surfaces on which B. cereus biofilms have formed.

Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on stainless steel upon exposure to Paenibacillus polymyxa biofilms.

We investigated the potential use of biofilm formed by a competitive-exclusion (CE) microorganism to inactivate Escherichia coli O157:H7 on a stainless steel surface. Five microorganisms showing inhibitory activities against E. coli O157:H7 were isolated from vegetable seeds and sprouts. The microorganism with the greatest antimicrobial activity was identified as Paenibacillus polymyxa (strain T5). In tryptic soy broth (TSB), strain T5 reached a higher population at 25 °C than at 12 or 37 °C without losing inhibitory activity against E. coli O157:H7. When P. polymyxa (6 log CFU/mL) was co-cultured with E. coli O157:H7 (2, 3, 4, or 5 log CFU/mL) in TSB at 25 °C, the number of E. coli O157:H7 decreased significantly within 24h. P. polymyxa formed a biofilm on stainless steel coupons (SSCs) in TSB at 25 °C within 24h, and cells in biofilms, compared to attached cells without biofilm formation, showed significantly increased resistance to a dry environment (43% relative humidity [RH]). With the exception of an inoculum of 4 log CFU/coupon at 100% RH, upon exposure to biofilm formed by P. polymyxa on SSCs, populations of E. coli O157:H7 (2, 4, or 6 log CFU/coupon) were significantly reduced within 48 h. Most notably, when E. coli O157:H7 at 2 log CFU/coupon was applied to SSCs on which P. polymyxa biofilm had formed, it was inactivated within 1h, regardless of RH. These results will be useful when developing strategies using biofilms produced by competitive exclusion microorganisms to inactivate foodborne pathogens in food processing environments.

Inhibitory activity of Paenibacillus polymyxa on the biofilm formation of Cronobacter spp. on stainless steel surfaces.

The objective of this study was to control the survival or biofilm formation of Cronobacter spp. on stainless steel surfaces using Paenibacillus polymyxa. The antibacterial activity of a cell-free culture supernatant (CFCS) of P. polymyxa against Cronobacter spp. was found to vary with P. polymyxa incubation time. Maximum activity occurred when P. polymyxa was incubated at 25 or 30 °C for 96 h. When the CFCS was introduced to Cronobacter spp. adhered to stainless steel strips at 25 °C for up to 72 h, the CFCS successfully inhibited Cronobacter biofilm formation. Additionally, stainless steel surfaces with a preformed P. polymyxa biofilm were exposed to Cronobacter spp. suspensions in PBS or 0.1% peptone water at 3, 5, or 7 log CFU/mL to facilitate its attachment. The Cronobacter population significantly decreased on this surface, regardless of inoculum level or carrier, when the P. polymyxa biofilm was present. However, the microbial population decreased within 6 h and remained unchanged thereafter when the surface was immersed in an inoculum suspended in 0.1% peptone water at 5 or 7 log CFU/mL. These results indicate that P. polymyxa is able to use a promising candidate competitive-exclusion microorganism to control Cronobacter spp.

Fate of Enterobacter sakazakii attached to or in biofilms on stainless steel upon exposure to various temperatures or relative humidities.

Survival of Enterobacter sakazakii dried on the surface of stainless steel and exposed to 43% relative humidity, as affected by temperature, was studied. Populations of E. sakazakii (7.4 to 8.6 log CFU per coupon) on coupons dried for 2 h at 22 degrees C decreased significantly (P < or = 0.05) at 4, 25, and 37 degrees C within 10, 3, and 1 day(s), respectively, but the pathogen remained viable for up to 60 days. At a given storage temperature and time, reductions were significantly greater when cells had been suspended in water rather than in infant formula before drying. Formation of biofilm by E. sakazakii on stainless steel immersed in M9 medium, which contains minimal concentrations of nutrients, and infant formula at 25 degrees C and subsequent survival of cells at 25 degrees C as affected by exposure to 23, 43, 68, 85, and 100% relative humidity were investigated. Some of the cells in these biofilms survived under all test relative humidities for up to 42 days. The overall order of survival as affected by relative humidity was 100 > 23 = 43 = 68 > 85% relative humidity, regardless of the medium in which the biofilm was formed. Reduction in viability of cells was significantly greater in biofilm that had formed in M9 medium than in biofilm formed in infant formula. Results indicate that infant formula provides protection for attached cells, as well as cells in biofilm, against lethality on exposure to desiccation. These results are useful when predicting the survival characteristics of E. sakazakii on stainless steel surfaces in processing and preparation kitchen environments.

Effectiveness of disinfectants in killing Enterobacter sakazakii in suspension, dried on the surface of stainless steel, and in a biofilm.

The effectiveness of 13 disinfectants used in hospitals, day-care centers, and food service kitchens in killing Enterobacter sakazakii in suspension, dried on the surface of stainless steel, and in biofilm was determined. E. sakazakii exhibited various levels of resistance to the disinfectants, depending on the composition of the disinfectants, amount and type of organic matrix surrounding cells, and exposure time. Populations of planktonic cells suspended in water (7.22 to 7.40 log CFU/ml) decreased to undetectable levels (<0.30 log CFU/ml) within 1 to 5 min upon treatment with disinfectants, while numbers of cells in reconstituted infant formula were reduced by only 0.02 to 3.69 log CFU/ml after the treatment for 10 min. The presence of infant formula also enhanced the resistance to the disinfectants of cells dried on the surface of stainless steel. The resistance of cells to disinfectants in 6-day-old and 12-day-old biofilms on the surface of stainless steel was not significantly different. The overall order of efficacy of disinfectants in killing E. sakazakii was planktonic cells > cells inoculated and dried on stainless steel > cells in biofilms on stainless steel. Findings show that disinfectants routinely used in hospital, day-care, and food service kitchen settings are ineffective in killing some cells of E. sakazakii embedded in organic matrices.

Lethality of chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and a commercial produce sanitizer to Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas in a liquid detergent, on stainless steel, and in biofilm.

Many factors that are not fully understood may influence the effectiveness of sanitizer treatments for eliminating pathogens and spoilage microorganisms in food or detergent residues or in biofilms on food contact surfaces. This study was done to determine the sensitivities of Pseudomonas cells and Bacillus cereus cells and spores suspended in a liquid dishwashing detergent and inoculated onto the surface of stainless steel to treatment with chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and a commercial produce sanitizer (Fit). Cells and spores were incubated in a liquid dishwashing detergent for 16 to 18 h before treatment with sanitizers. At 50 microg/ml, chlorine dioxide killed a significantly higher number of Pseudomonas cells (3.82 log CFU/ml) than did chlorine (a reduction of 1.34 log CFU/ml). Stainless steel coupons were spot inoculated with Pseudomonas cells and B. cereus cells and spores, with water and 5% horse serum as carriers. Chlorine was more effective than chlorine dioxide in killing cells and spores of B. cereus suspended in horse serum. B. cereus biofilm on stainless steel coupons that were treated with chlorine dioxide or chlorine at 200 microg/ml had total population reductions (vegetative cells plus spores) of > or = 4.42 log CFU per coupon; the number of spores was reduced by > or = 3.80 log CFU per coupon. Fit (0.5%) was ineffective for killing spot-inoculated B. cereus and B. cereus in biofilm, but treatment with mixtures of Fit and chlorine dioxide caused greater reductions than did treatment with chlorine dioxide alone. In contrast, when chlorine was combined with Fit, the lethality of chlorine was completely lost. This study provides information on the survival and sanitizer sensitivity of Pseudomonas and B. cereus in a liquid dishwashing detergent, on the surface of stainless steel, and in a biofilm. This information will be useful for developing more effective strategies for cleaning and sanitizing contact surfaces in food preparation and processing environments.

Attachment of and biofilm formation by Enterobacter sakazakii on stainless steel and enteral feeding tubes.

Enterobacter sakazakii has been reported to form biofilms, but environmental conditions affecting attachment to and biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces have not been described. We did a study to determine the effects of temperature and nutrient availability on attachment and biofilm formation by E. sakazakii on stainless steel and enteral feeding tubes. Five strains grown to stationary phase in tryptic soy broth (TSB), infant formula broth (IFB), or lettuce juice broth (LJB) at 12 and 25 degrees C were examined for the extent to which they attach to these materials. Higher populations attached at 25 degrees C than at 12 degrees C. Stainless steel coupons and enteral feeding tubes were immersed for 24 h at 4 degrees C in phosphate-buffered saline suspensions (7 log CFU/ml) to facilitate the attachment of 5.33 to 5.51 and 5.03 to 5.12 log CFU/cm(2), respectively, before they were immersed in TSB, IFB, or LJB, followed by incubation at 12 or 25 degrees C for up to 10 days. Biofilms were not produced at 12 degrees C. The number of cells of test strains increased by 1.42 to 1.67 log CFU/cm(2) and 1.16 to 1.31 log CFU/cm(2) in biofilms formed on stainless steel and feeding tubes, respectively, immersed in IFB at 25 degrees C; biofilms were not formed on TSB and LJB at 25 degrees C, indicating that nutrient availability plays a major role in processes leading to biofilm formation on the surfaces of these inert materials. These observations emphasize the importance of temperature control in reconstituted infant formula preparation and storage areas in preventing attachment and biofilm formation by E. sakazakii.

Evaluation of chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and a peroxyacetic acid-based sanitizer for effectiveness in killing Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis spores in suspensions, on the surface of stainless steel, and on apples.

Chlorine (10 to 200 microg/ml), chlorine dioxide (10 to 200 microg/ml), and a peroxyacetic acid-based sanitizer (40 and 80 microg/ ml) were evaluated for effectiveness in killing spores of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis in suspensions and on the surface of stainless steel and apples. Water and 5% horse serum were used as carriers for spore inoculum applied to the surface of stainless steel coupons, and 5% horse serum was used as a carrier for inoculum applied to apples. Inocula were dried on stainless steel for 5 h and on apples for 22 to 24 h before treating with sanitizers. At the concentrations of sanitizers tested, sensitivities of planktonic B. cereus and B. thuringiensis spores were similar. A portion of the spores surviving treatment with chlorine and, more markedly, chlorine dioxide had decreased tolerance to heat. Planktonic spores of both species were more sensitive to sanitizers than were spores on the surface of stainless steel or apples. At the same concentrations, chlorine was more effective than chlorine dioxide in killing spores in suspension and on stainless steel. The lethality of chlorine dioxide was markedly reduced when inoculum on stainless steel coupons was suspended in 5% horse serum as a carrier rather than water. Chlorine and chlorine dioxide at concentrations of 10 to 100 microg/ml were equally effective in killing spores on apples. Significant reductions of > or = 3.8 to 4.5 log CFU per apple were achieved by treatment with 100 microg/ml of either of the two sanitizers. The peroxyacetic acid sanitizer (40 and 80 microg/ml) was ineffective in killing Bacillus spores in the test systems investigated. Results provide information on the effectiveness of sanitizers commonly used in the food processing industry in killing Bacillus spores in suspension, on a food-contact surface, and on a ready-to-eat food.

Biofilm formation and sporulation by Bacillus cereus on a stainless steel surface and subsequent resistance of vegetative cells and spores to chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and a peroxyacetic acid-based sanitizer.

Biofilm formation by Bacillus cereus 038-2 on stainless steel coupons, sporulation in the biofilm as affected by nutrient availability, temperature, and relative humidity, and the resistance of vegetative cells and spores in biofilm to sanitizers were investigated. Total counts in biofilm formed on coupons immersed in tryptic soy broth (TSB) at 12 and 22 degrees C consisted of 99.94% of vegetative cells and 0.06% of spores. Coupons on which biofilm had formed were immersed in TSB or exposed to air with 100, 97, 93, or 85% relative humidity. Biofilm on coupons immersed in TSB at 12 degrees C for an additional 6 days or 22 degrees C for an additional 4 days contained 0.30 and 0.02% of spores, respectively, whereas biofilm exposed to air with 100 or 97% relative humidity at 22 degrees C for 4 days contained 10 and 2.5% of spores, respectively. Sporulation did not occur in biofilm exposed to 93 or 85% relative humidity at 22 degrees C. Treatment of biofilm on coupons that had been immersed in TSB at 22 degrees C with chlorine (50 microg/ml), chlorine dioxide (50 microg/ml), and a peroxyacetic acid-based sanitizer (Tsunami 200, 40 microg/ml) for 5 min reduced total cell counts (vegetative cells plus spores) by 4.7, 3.0, and 3.8 log CFU per coupon, respectively; total cell counts in biofilm exposed to air with 100% relative humidity were reduced by 1.5, 2.4, and 1.1 log CFU per coupon, respectively, reflecting the presence of lower numbers of vegetative cells. Spores that survived treatment with chlorine dioxide had reduced resistance to heat. It is concluded that exposure of biofilm formed by B. cereus exposed to air at high relative humidity (> or =97%) promotes the production of spores. Spores and, to a lesser extent, vegetative cells embedded in biofilm are protected against inactivation by sanitizers. Results provide new insights to developing strategies to achieve more effective sanitation programs to minimize risks associated with B. cereus in biofilm formed on food contact surfaces and on foods.

Biofilm formation by Escherichia coli O157:H7 on stainless steel: effect of exopolysaccharide and Curli production on its resistance to chlorine.

The resistance of Escherichia coli O157:H7 strains ATCC 43895-, 43895-EPS (an exopolysaccharide [EPS]-overproducing mutant), and ATCC 43895+ (a curli-producing mutant) to chlorine, a sanitizer commonly used in the food industry, was studied. Planktonic cells of strains 43895-EPS and/or ATCC 43895+ grown under conditions supporting EPS and curli production, respectively, showed the highest resistance to chlorine, indicating that EPS and curli afford protection. Planktonic cells (ca. 9 log(10) CFU/ml) of all strains, however, were killed within 10 min by treatment with 50 microg of chlorine/ml. Significantly lower numbers of strain 43895-EPS, compared to those of strain ATCC 43895-, attached to stainless steel coupons, but the growth rate of strain 43895-EPS on coupons was not significantly different from that of strain ATCC 43895-, indicating that EPS production did not affect cell growth during biofilm formation. Curli production did not affect the initial attachment of cells to coupons but did enhance biofilm production. The resistance of E. coli O157:H7 to chlorine increased significantly as cells formed biofilm on coupons; strain ATCC 43895+ was the most resistant. Population sizes of strains ATCC 43895+ and ATCC 43895- in biofilm formed at 12 degrees C were not significantly different, but cells of strain ATCC 43895+ showed significantly higher resistance than did cells of strain ATCC 43895-. These observations support the hypothesis that the production of EPS and curli increase the resistance of E. coli O157:H7 to chlorine.

Attachment and biofilm formation by Escherichia coli O157:H7 on stainless steel as influenced by exopolysaccharide production, nutrient availability, and temperature.

The influence of exopolysaccharide (EPS) production, nutrient availability, and temperature on attachment and biofilm formation by Escherichia coli O157:H7 strains ATCC 43895 (wild type) and 43895-EPS (extensive EPS-producing mutant) on stainless steel coupons (SSCs) was investigated. Cells grown on heated lettuce juice agar and modified tryptic soy agar were suspended in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). SSCs were immersed in the cell suspension (10(9) CFU/ml) at 4 degrees C for 24 h. Biofilm formation by cells attached to SSCs as affected by immersing in 10% tryptic soy broth (TSB), lettuce juice broth (LJB), and minimal salts broth (MSB) at 12 and 22 degrees C was studied. A significantly lower number of strain 43895-EPS cells, compared to strain ATCC 43895 cells, attached to SSCs during a 24-h incubation (4 degrees C) period in PBS suspension. Neither strain formed a biofilm on SSCs subsequently immersed in 10% TSB or LJB, but both strains formed biofilms in MSB. Populations of attached cells and planktonic cells of strain ATCC 43895 gradually decreased during incubation for 6 days in LJB at 22 degrees C, but populations of strain 43895-EPS remained constant for 6 days at 22 degrees C, indicating that the EPS-producing mutant, compared to the wild-type strain, has a higher tolerance to the low-nutrient environment presented by LJB. It is concluded that EPS production by E. coli O157:H7 inhibits attachment to SSCs and that reduced nutrient availability enhances biofilm formation. Biofilms formed under conditions favorable for EPS production may protect E. coli O157:H7 against sanitizers used to decontaminate lettuce and produce processing environments. Studies are under way to test this hypothesis.