B-lymphocyte tolerance and effector function in immunity and autoimmunity.

B-lymphocytes are integral to host defense against microbial pathogens and are associated with many autoimmune diseases. The B-cell receptor implements B-cell self-tolerance based on the antigen specificity, and B-cell-activating factor receptor (BAFF-R) imposes homeostatic control. While shaping the repertoire, the immune tolerance process also culls mature B cells into distinct populations. The activation response of B cells is tailored to the type of pathogen attack and is facilitated by T-cell help via CD40/CD40L interaction and/or innate cell help via toll-like receptors in conjunction with BAFF receptors and ligands. Activated effector B cells not only produce antibodies, but also produce a variety of cytokines to enhance and suppress the immune response. Not surprisingly, B cells play multiple roles in both humoral and cellular immune responses during infection and autoimmune pathogenesis. Here, we discuss how gene expression and signaling networks regulate peripheral B-cell tolerance, B-cell effector functions and emerging therapies targeting B-cell signaling in autoimmune diseases.

Critical role of B cell lymphoma 10 in BAFF-regulated NF-κB activation and survival of anergic B cells.

Anergy is a key physiological mechanism for restraining self-reactive B cells. A marked portion of peripheral B cells are anergic B cells that largely depend on BAFF for survival. BAFF activates the canonical and noncanonical NF-κB pathways, both of which are required for B cell survival. In this study we report that deficiency of the adaptor protein B cell lymphoma 10 (Bcl10) impaired the ability of BAFF to support B cell survival in vitro, and it specifically increased apoptosis in anergic B cells in vivo, dramatically reducing anergic B cells in mice. Bcl10-dependent survival of self-reactive anergic B cells was confirmed in the Ig hen egg lysozyme/soluble hen egg lysozyme double-transgenic mouse model of B cell anergy. Furthermore, we found that BAFF stimulation induced Bcl10 association with IκB kinase ß, a key component of the canonical NF-κB pathway. Consistently, Bcl10-deficient B cells were impaired in BAFF-induced IκBα phosphorylation and formation of nuclear p50/c-Rel complexes. Bcl10-deficient B cells also displayed reduced expression of NF-κB2/p100, severely reducing BAFF-induced nuclear accumulation of noncanonical p52/RelB complexes. Consequently, Bcl10-deficient B cells failed to express Bcl-x(L), a BAFF-induced NF-κB target gene. Taken together, these data demonstrate that Bcl10 controls BAFF-induced canonical NF-κB activation directly and noncanonical NF-κB activation indirectly. The BAFF-R/Bcl10/NF-κB signaling axis plays a critical role in peripheral B cell tolerance by regulating the survival of self-reactive anergic B cells.

Modulation of hepatocyte growth factor secretion in human female reproductive tract stromal fibroblasts by poly (I:C) and estradiol.

PROBLEM: Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF) secretion facilitates epithelial cell growth and development in the female reproductive tract (FRT) and may contribute to pathological conditions such as cancer and endometriosis. We hypothesized that estradiol and poly (I:C), a synthetic RNA mimic, may have a regulatory effect on HGF secretion by stromal fibroblasts from FRT tissues. METHOD OF STUDY: Following hysterectomies, normal tissue from the uterus, endocervix, and ectocervix were dispersed into stromal cell fractions by enzymatic digestion and differential filtering. Stromal fibroblasts were cultured and treated with estradiol and/or poly (I:C), and conditioned media were analyzed for HGF via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: Treating uterine fibroblasts with estradiol or poly (I:C) significantly increased HGF secretion. When uterine fibroblasts were co-treated with estradiol and poly (I:C), the effect on HGF secretion was additive. In contrast, stromal fibroblasts from endo- and ecto-cervix were unresponsive to estradiol, but were stimulated to secrete HGF by poly (I:C). CONCLUSION: HGF secretion is uniquely regulated in the uterus, but not in ecto- and endo-cervix, by estradiol. Moreover, potential viral pathogens further induce HGF. These findings have potential applications in understanding both hormonal regulation of normal tissue as well as the role of HGF in tumorogenesis, endometriosis, and human immunodeficiency virus infection.

Soluble multi-trimeric TNF superfamily ligand adjuvants enhance immune responses to a HIV-1 Gag DNA vaccine.

BACKGROUND: DNA vaccines remain an important component of HIV vaccination strategies, typically as part of a prime/boost vaccination strategy with viral vector or protein boost. A number of DNA prime/viral vector boost vaccines are currently being evaluated for both preclinical studies and in Phase I and Phase II clinical trials. These vaccines would benefit from molecular adjuvants that increase correlates of immunity during the DNA prime. While HIV vaccine immune correlates are still not well defined, there are a number of immune assays that have been shown to correlate with protection from viral challenge including CD8+ T cell avidity, antigen-specific proliferation, and polyfunctional cytokine secretion. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Recombinant DNA vaccine adjuvants composed of a fusion between Surfactant Protein D (SP-D) and either CD40 Ligand (CD40L) or GITR Ligand (GITRL) were previously shown to enhance HIV-1 Gag DNA vaccines. Here we show that similar fusion constructs composed of the TNF superfamily ligands (TNFSFL) 4-1BBL, OX40L, RANKL, LIGHT, CD70, and BAFF can also enhanced immune responses to a HIV-1 Gag DNA vaccine. BALB/c mice were vaccinated intramuscularly with plasmids expressing secreted Gag and SP-D-TNFSFL fusions. Initially, mice were analyzed 2 weeks or 7 weeks following vaccination to evaluate the relative efficacy of each SP-D-TNFSFL construct. All SP-D-TNFSFL constructs enhanced at least one Gag-specific immune response compared to the parent vaccine. Importantly, the constructs SP-D-4-1BBL, SP-D-OX40L, and SP-D-LIGHT enhanced CD8+ T cell avidity and CD8+/CD4+ T cell proliferation 7 weeks post vaccination. These avidity and proliferation data suggest that 4-1BBL, OX40L, and LIGHT fusion constructs may be particularly effective as vaccine adjuvants. Constructs SP-D-OX40L, SP-D-LIGHT, and SP-D-BAFF enhanced Gag-specific IL-2 secretion in memory T cells, suggesting these adjuvants can increase the number of self-renewing Gag-specific CD8+ and/or CD4+ T cells. Finally adjuvants SP-D-OX40L and SP-D-CD70 increased T(H)1 (IgG2a) but not T(H)2 (IgG1) antibody responses in the vaccinated animals. Surprisingly, the B cell-activating protein BAFF did not enhance anti-Gag antibody responses when given as an SP-D fusion adjuvant, but nonetheless enhanced CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses. CONCLUSIONS: We present evidence that various SP-D-TNFSFL fusion constructs can enhance immune responses following DNA vaccination with HIV-1 Gag expression plasmid. These data support the continued evaluation of SP-D-TNFSFL fusion proteins as molecular adjuvants for DNA and/or viral vector vaccines. Constructs of particular interest included SP-D-OX40L, SP-D-4-1BBL, SP-D-LIGHT, and SP-D-CD70. SP-D-BAFF was surprisingly effective at enhancing T cell responses, despite its inability to enhance anti-Gag antibody secretion.

B cell receptor-mediated sustained c-Rel activation facilitates late transitional B cell survival through control of B cell activating factor receptor and NF-kappaB2.

Signaling from the BCR and B cell activating factor receptor (BAFF-R or BR3) differentially regulates apoptosis within early transitional (T1) and late transitional (T2; CD21(int)-T2) B cells during selection processes to generate mature B lymphocytes. However, molecular mechanisms underlying the differential sensitivity of transitional B cells to apoptosis remain unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that BCR signaling induced more long-term c-Rel activation in T2 and mature than in T1 B cells leading to increased expression of anti-apoptotic genes as well as prosurvival BAFF-R and its downstream substrate p100 (NF-kappaB2). Sustained c-Rel activation required de novo c-Rel gene transcription and translation via Btk-dependent mechanisms. Like T1 cells, mature B cells from Btk- and c-Rel-deficient mice also failed to activate these genes. These findings suggest that the gain of survival potential within transitional B cells is dependent on the ability to produce a long-term c-Rel response, which plays a critical role in T2 B cell survival and differentiation in vivo by inducing anti-apoptotic genes, BAFF-R and NF-kappaB2, an essential component for BAFF-R survival signaling. Thus, acquisition of resistance to apoptosis during transitional B cell maturation is achieved by integration of BCR and BAFF-R signals.

Estradiol modulation of hepatocyte growth factor by stromal fibroblasts in the female reproductive tract.

Primary human uterine, cervical, and ectocervical stromal fibroblasts constitutively secrete hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), yet only uterine stromal fibroblasts increase HGF secretion in response to estradiol. Estradiol-induced HGF secretion by uterine stromal fibroblasts may have a significant effect on uterine cancer and endometriosis.

Antiviral responses of human Fallopian tube epithelial cells to toll-like receptor 3 agonist poly(I:C).

OBJECTIVE: To examine the expression of toll-like receptors (TLR) by primary human Fallopian tube epithelial cells (FTEC) and to determine whether exposure to the TLR3 agonist poly(I:C) induces an antiviral response. DESIGN: Tissue culture study. SETTING: University medical center. PATIENT(S): Premenopausal women undergoing hysterectomy. INTERVENTION(S): Primary human FTEC were grown to confluence and high transepithelial resistance and treated with TLR agonists. Conditioned media was collected and RNA was extracted and analyzed for the expression of cytokines, chemokines, and antimicrobial genes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): The RNA was analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction and protein levels were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULT(S): The FTEC were demonstrated to express TLR1-9 but not 10. Treatment of FTEC with TLR3 agonist poly(I:C) resulted in increased expression of interleukin-8, tumor-necrosis factor alpha, human beta-defensin 2, interferon beta, and interferon stimulated genes myxovirus resistance gene 1, 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase, and protein kinase R. Additionally, FTEC exposed to poly(I:C) also resulted in the induction of TLR2, TLR3, and TLR7. CONCLUSION(S): Our results suggest that FTEC are sensitive to viral infection and/or exposure to viral double-stranded RNA and can respond by secreting proinflammatory cytokines that mediate the initiation of an inflammatory response as well as expressing genes that can directly inhibit viral replication.

Expression and secretion of antiviral factors by trophoblast cells following stimulation by the TLR-3 agonist, Poly(I : C).

BACKGROUND: During pregnancy, the placenta may become exposed to micro-organisms, such as viruses, which may pose a substantial threat to the embryo/fetus well-being. Recent insight into the immunological capabilities of the trophoblast suggests that the placenta may function as an active barrier by recognizing and responding to pathogens through Toll-like receptors (TLRs). METHODS: The objective of this study was to determine whether the engagement of TLR-3 with viral dsRNA by first-trimester trophoblast could induce the production of factors necessary to generate an antiviral response. Therefore, trophoblast cells were exposed to the TLR-3 agonist, Poly(I : C). RESULTS: We report that following stimulation with Poly(I : C), first-trimester trophoblast cells produce interferon beta (IFNbeta) and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), as well as the intracellular factors 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS), Myxovirus-resistance A (MxA) and apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme-catalytic polypeptide-like 3G (APOBEC3G). This response is TLR-3 specific because the TLR-4 ligand, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), had no effect on the production of these antimicrobial factors. Furthermore, we describe a positive feedback mechanism in which IFNbeta enhances the antiviral response by promoting the production of OAS, MxA and APOBEC3G. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that trophoblast cells are able to recognize and specifically respond to viral products in a highly regulated fashion and that the placenta may be pivotal in the control of viral infections at the maternal-fetal interface.

Lipopolysaccharide-induced IL-1 beta production by human uterine macrophages up-regulates uterine epithelial cell expression of human beta-defensin 2.

The uterine endometrium coordinates a wide spectrum of physiologic and immunologic functions, including endometrial receptivity and implantation as well as defense against sexually transmitted pathogens. Macrophages and epithelial cells cooperatively mediate innate host defense against bacterial invasion through the generation of immunologic effectors, including cytokines and antimicrobial peptides. In this study, we demonstrate that stimulation of peripheral blood monocytes and uterine macrophages with bacterial LPS induces the production of biologically active proinflammatory IL-1beta. High doses of estradiol enhance LPS-induced IL-1beta expression in an estrogen receptor-dependent manner. Furthermore, both peripheral blood monocyte- and uterine macrophage-derived IL-1beta induce secretion of antimicrobial human beta-defensin 2 by uterine epithelial cells. These data indicate dynamic immunologic interaction between uterine macrophages and epithelial cells and implicate a role for estradiol in the modulation of the immune response.

IL-1beta-mediated proinflammatory responses are inhibited by estradiol via down-regulation of IL-1 receptor type I in uterine epithelial cells.

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of sex hormones on IL-1beta-mediated responses by uterine epithelial cells. The mRNA expression and secretion of human beta-defensin-2 and CXCL8 by uterine epithelial cells was examined following stimulation with IL-1beta in the presence of estradiol or progesterone. Estradiol inhibited the IL-1beta-mediated mRNA expression and secretion of human beta-defensin-2 and CXCL8 by uterine epithelial cells while progesterone had no effect. Inhibition of the IL-1beta-mediated response by estradiol was dose dependent, with maximal inhibition observed using 10(-7) to 10(-10) M, and was shown to be mediated through the estrogen receptor because addition of a pure estrogen receptor antagonist abrogated this effect. The mechanism by which estradiol inhibits IL-1beta-mediated responses by uterine epithelial cells appears to be the down-modulation of the IL-1R type I, thereby reducing the uterine epithelial cell's ability to respond to IL-1beta. These results suggest that the inhibitory effect of estradiol on IL-1beta-mediated inflammatory responses by uterine epithelial cells indicates a link between the endocrine and immune systems and may be crucial for dampening proinflammatory responses during the time of ovulation or pregnancy.

Migration inhibitory factor secretion by polarized uterine epithelial cells is enhanced in response to the TLR3 agonist poly (I:C).

PROBLEM: Uterine epithelial cells produce cytokines that stimulate leukocytes in response to a microbial insult. The goals of this study were to determine if uterine epithelial cells produce the pro-inflammatory cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), and to see if toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists stimulate MIF secretion. METHODS OF STUDY: Human uterine epithelial cells were isolated and grown in cell culture inserts. Levels of MIF secretion were examined by ELISA and MIF messenger RNA (mRNA) expression was examined using real time RT-PCR. RESULTS: Uterine epithelial cells constitutively secrete MIF and exposure to the TLR3 agonist poly (I:C) resulted in enhanced apical secretion of MIF. MIF secretion appeared to be from pre-formed intracellular stores, since exposure of epithelial cells to poly (I:C) had little effect on the expression of MIF-mRNA. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that uterine epithelial cells constitutively produce MIF and stimulation with poly (I:C) results in enhanced MIF production. This suggests that MIF secretion by uterine epithelial cells may play a critical role in innate immune responses against viral pathogens mediated through TLR3.

Innate immunity in the human female reproductive tract: antiviral response of uterine epithelial cells to the TLR3 agonist poly(I:C).

The objective of this study was to examine the expression of TLR by human primary uterine epithelial cells (UEC) and to determine whether exposure to the TLR agonist poly(I:C) would induce an antiviral response. The secretion of several cytokines and chemokines was examined as well as the mRNA expression of human beta-defensin-1 and -2 (HBD1 and HBD2), IFN-beta, and the IFN-beta-stimulated genes myxovirus resistance gene 1 and 2',5' oligoadenylate synthetase. The expression of TLR1-9 by UEC was demonstrated by RT-PCR, with only TLR10 not expressed. Stimulation of UEC with the TLR3 agonist poly(I:C) induced the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-6, GM-CSF, and G-CSF, as well as the chemokines CXCL8/IL-8, CCL2/MCP-1, and CCL4/MIP-1beta. In addition, poly(I:C) exposure induced the mRNA expression of HBD1 and HBD2 by 6- and 4-fold, respectively. Furthermore, upon exposure to poly(I:C) UEC initiated a potent antiviral response resulting in the induction of IFN-beta mRNA expression 70-fold and myxovirus resistance gene 1 and 2',5' oligoadenylate synthetase mRNA expression (107- and 96-fold), respectively. These results suggest that epithelial cells that line the uterine cavity are sensitive to viral infection and/or exposure to viral dsRNA released from killed epithelial cells. Not only do UEC release proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines that mediate the initiation of an inflammatory response and recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, but they also express beta-defensins, IFN-beta, and IFN-beta-stimulated genes that can have a direct inhibiting effect on viral replication.