Poly(ADP-ribose) potentiates ZAP antiviral activity.

Zinc-finger antiviral protein (ZAP), also known as poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 13 (PARP13), is an antiviral factor that selectively targets viral RNA for degradation. ZAP is active against both DNA and RNA viruses, including important human pathogens such as hepatitis B virus and type 1 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). ZAP selectively binds CpG dinucleotides through its N-terminal RNA-binding domain, which consists of four zinc fingers. ZAP also contains a central region that consists of a fifth zinc finger and two WWE domains. Through structural and biochemical studies, we found that the fifth zinc finger and tandem WWEs of ZAP combine into a single integrated domain that binds to poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR), a cellular polynucleotide. PAR binding is mediated by the second WWE module of ZAP and likely involves specific recognition of an adenosine diphosphate-containing unit of PAR. Mutation of the PAR binding site in ZAP abrogates the interaction in vitro and diminishes ZAP activity against a CpG-rich HIV-1 reporter virus and murine leukemia virus. In cells, PAR facilitates formation of non-membranous sub-cellular compartments such as DNA repair foci, spindle poles and cytosolic RNA stress granules. Our results suggest that ZAP-mediated viral mRNA degradation is facilitated by PAR, and provides a biophysical rationale for the reported association of ZAP with RNA stress granules.

Genome-wide transcriptional profiling reveals that HIV-1 Vpr differentially regulates interferon-stimulated genes in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are potent antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that directly link the innate and adaptive immune responses. HIV-1 infection of DCs leads to a diverse array of changes in gene expression and play a major role in dissemination of the virus into T-cells. Although HIV-1 Vpr is a pleiotropic protein involved in HIV-1 replication and pathogenesis, its exact role in APCs such as DCs remains elusive. In this study, utilizing a microarray-based systemic biology approach, we found that HIV-1 Vpr differentially regulates (fold change >2.0) more than 200 genes, primarily those involved in the immune response and innate immune response including type I interferon signaling pathway. The differential expression profiles of select genes involved in innate immune responses (interferon-stimulated genes [ISGs]), including MX1, MX2, ISG15, ISG20, IFIT1, IFIT2, IFIT3, IFI27, IFI44L, and TNFSF10, were validated by real-time quantitative PCR; the results were consistent with the microarray data. Taken together, our findings are the first to demonstrate that HIV-1 Vpr induces ISGs and activates the type I IFN signaling pathway in human DCs, and provide insights into the role of Vpr in HIV-1 pathogenesis.

HIV-1 Vpr induces interferon-stimulated genes in human monocyte-derived macrophages.

Macrophages act as reservoirs of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and play an important role in its transmission to other cells. HIV-1 Vpr is a multi-functional protein involved in HIV-1 replication and pathogenesis; however, its exact role in HIV-1-infected human macrophages remains poorly understood. In this study, we used a microarray approach to explore the effects of HIV-1 Vpr on the transcriptional profile of human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). More than 500 genes, mainly those involved in the innate immune response, the type I interferon pathway, cytokine production, and signal transduction, were differentially regulated (fold change >2.0) after infection with a recombinant adenovirus expressing HIV-1 Vpr protein. The differential expression profiles of select interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) and genes involved in the innate immune response, including STAT1, IRF7, MX1, MX2, ISG15, ISG20, IFIT1, IFIT2, IFIT3, IFI27, IFI44L, APOBEC3A, DDX58 (RIG-I), TNFSF10 (TRAIL), and RSAD2 (viperin) were confirmed by real-time quantitative PCR and were consistent with the microarray data. In addition, at the post-translational level, HIV-1 Vpr induced the phosphorylation of STAT1 at tyrosine 701 in human MDMs. These results demonstrate that HIV-1 Vpr leads to the induction of ISGs and expand the current understanding of the function of Vpr and its role in HIV-1 immune pathogenesis.

Identification of a novel Vpr-binding compound that inhibits HIV-1 multiplication in macrophages by chemical array.

Although HIV-1 replication can be controlled by highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) using protease and reverse transcriptase inhibitors, the development of multidrug-resistant viruses compromises the efficacy of HAART. Thus, it is necessary to develop new drugs with novel targets. To identify new anti-HIV-1 compounds, recombinant Vpr was purified from transfected COS-7 cells and used to screen compounds by chemical array to identify those that bound Vpr. From this screen, 108 compounds were selected as positive for Vpr binding. Among these, one structurally similar group of four compounds showed anti-HIV activity in macrophages. In particular, compound SIP-1 had high inhibition activity and reduced the levels of p24 by more than 98% in macrophages after 8 or 12 days of infection. SIP-1 had no cytotoxic effects and did not disrupt cell cycle progression or induce apoptosis of Molt-4 and HeLa cell lines as measured by MTT assay, flow-cytometry analysis, and a caspase-3 assay. In addition, SIP-1 specifically bound to Vpr as assessed by photo-cross-linked small-molecule affinity beads. These results suggest that Vpr is a good target for the development of compounds that could potentially inhibit HIV-1 replication. Collectively, our results strongly suggest that chemical array is a useful method for screening anti-viral compounds.

Role of cellular prion proteins in the function of macrophages and dendritic cells.

The cellular isoform of prion proteins (PrPC) is expressed in hematopoietic stem cells, granulocytes, T and B lymphocyte natural killer cells, platelets, monocytes, dendritic cells, and follicular dendritic cells, which may act as carrier cells for the spread of its abnormal isoform (PrPSc) before manifesting transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). In particular, macrophages and dendritic cells seem to be involved in the replication of PrPSc after ingestion. In addition, information on the role of PrPC during phagocytotic activity in these cells has been obtained. A recent study showed that resident macrophages from ZrchI PrP gene (Prnp)-deficient (Prnp-/-) mice show augmented phagocytotic activity compared to Prnp+/+ counterparts. In contrast, our study suggests that Rikn Prnp-/- peritoneal macrophages show pseudopodium extension arrest and up-regulation of phagocytotic activity compared to Prnp+/+ cells. Although reports regarding phagocytotic activity in resident and peritoneal macrophages are inconsistent between ZrchI and Rikn Prnp-/- mice, it seems plausible that PrPC in macrophages could contribute to maintain the immunological environment. This review will introduce the recent progress in understanding the functions of PrPC in macrophages and dendritic cells under physiological conditions and its involvement in the pathogenesis of prion diseases.