Occupational risks associated with chronic kidney disease of non-traditional origin (CKDnt) in Brazil: it is time to dig deeper into a neglected problem / Riscos ocupacionais associados à doença renal crônica de origem não tradicional (DRCnt) no Brasil: é hora de nos aprofundarmos em um problema negligenciado

Abstract In the past decades, an epidemic of chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been associated with environmental and occupational factors (heat stress from high workloads in hot temperatures and exposure to chemicals, such as pesticides and metals), which has been termed CKD of non-traditional origin (CKDnt). This descriptive review aims to present recent evidence about heat stress, pesticides, and metals as possible causes of CKDnt and provide an overview of the related Brazilian regulation, enforcement, and health surveillance strategies. Brazilian workers are commonly exposed to extreme heat conditions and other CKDnt risk factors, including increasing exposure to pesticides and metals. Furthermore, there is a lack of adequate regulation (and enforcement), public policies, and strategies to protect the kidney health of workers, considering the main risk factors. CKDnt is likely to be a significant cause of CKD in Brazil, since CKD's etiology is unknown in many patients and several conditions for its development are present in the country. Further epidemiological studies may be conducted to explore causal associations and estimate the impact of heat, pesticides, and metals on CKDnt in Brazil. Moreover, public policies should prioritize reducing workers´ exposure and promoting their health and safety.

Resumo Nas últimas décadas, uma epidemia de doença renal crônica (DRC) tem sido associada a fatores ambientais e ocupacionais (estresse térmico decorrente de cargas de trabalho elevadas em altas temperaturas e exposição a produtos químicos, como agrotóxicos e metais), denominada DRC de origem não tradicional (DRCnt). Esta revisão descritiva tem como objetivo apresentar evidências recentes sobre estresse térmico, agrotóxicos e metais como possíveis causas de DRCnt e fornecer uma visão geral das estratégias brasileiras de regulamentação, fiscalização e vigilância sanitária relacionadas. Os trabalhadores brasileiros são comumente expostos a condições extremas de calor e outros fatores de risco de DRCnt, incluindo o aumento da exposição a agrotóxicos e metais. Além disso, há uma falta de regulamentação e fiscalização, políticas públicas e estratégias adequadas para proteger a saúde renal dos trabalhadores em relação aos principais fatores de risco. É provável que a DRCnt seja uma causa significativa de DRC no Brasil, uma vez que a etiologia da doença é desconhecida em muitos pacientes e diversas condições para seu desenvolvimento estão presentes no país. Estudos epidemiológicos devem ser realizados para explorar associações causais e estimar o impacto do calor, dos agrotóxicos e dos metais na DRCnt no Brasil. Além disso, as políticas públicas devem priorizar a redução da exposição dos trabalhadores e a promoção de sua saúde e segurança.

Hexafluoroisopropanol-based supramolecular solvent for liquid phase microextraction of pesticides in milk.

Residues of pesticides in milk may pose a threat to human health. This study aimed to develop a liquid-phase microextraction (LPME) method using hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP)-based supramolecular solvent (SUPRAS) for the simultaneous extraction and purification of four pesticides (boscalid, novaluron, cypermethrin and bifenthrin) in milk. Pesticides were extracted using SUPRAS prepared with nonanol and HFIP, and the extraction efficiency was analyzed. Results showed satisfactory recoveries ranging from 80.8%-111.0%, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of <6.4%. Additionally, satisfactory linearities were observed, with correlation coefficients >0.9952. The limits of quantification (LOQs) were in the range of 1.8 µg·L-1-14.0 µg·L-1. The established method demonstrated high extraction efficiency with a short operation time (15 mins) and low solvent consumption (2.7 mL). The HFIP-based SUPRAS LPME method offers a convenient and efficient approach for the extraction of pesticides from milk, presenting a promising alternative to conventional techniques.

A versatile yeast model identifies the pesticides cymoxanil and metalaxyl as risk factors for synucleinopathies.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons and the presence of Lewy bodies, which predominantly consist of aggregated forms of the protein alpha-synuclein (aSyn). While these aggregates are a pathological hallmark of PD, the etiology of most cases remains elusive. Although environmental risk factors have been identified, such as the pesticides dieldrin and MTPT, many others remain to be assessed and their molecular impacts are underexplored. This study aimed to identify pesticides that could aSyn aggregation using a humanized yeast model expressing aSyn fused to GFP as a primary screening platform,which we validated using dieldrin.. We found that the pesticides cymoxanil and metalaxyl induce aggregation of aSyn in yeast, which we confirmed also occurs in a model of aSyn inclusion formation using human H4 cells. In conclusion, our approach generated invaluable molecular data on the effect of pesticides, therefore providing insights into mechanisms associated with onset and progression of PD and other synucleinopathies.

Association between pancreatic adenocarcinoma risk and concentration of organochlorine pesticides in adipose tissue and urine: A targeted-screening analysis case-control study (PESTIPAC).

BACKGROUND: Knowledge about environmental pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PA) risk factors, including pesticide exposure, remains limited. Organochlorine (OC) accumulates in adipose tissue and can help reflect long-term exposure. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Age and body mass index (BMI) of patients with PA were matched with those undergoing a surgery for a benign disease on age and BMI (1:1). Targeted analyses screened 345 pesticides and metabolites, including 29 OC, in adipose tissue and urine samples. The primary aim was to investigate the association between organochlorine concentrations in visceral fat or urine, and PA. Adjusted conditional logistic regressions were carried out accounting for multiple testing. RESULTS: Trans-nonachlor (odds ratio [OR] = 1.325, 95% confidence interval [CI] [1.108-1.586]), cis-nonachlor (OR = 15.433, 95% CI [2.733-87.136]), Mirex (OR = 2.853, 95% CI [1.213-6.713]) and 4,4 DDE (OR = 1.019, 95% CI [1.005-1.034]) in fat and a greater number of positive samples (OR = 1.758 95% CI [1.11-2.997]) were significantly associated with higher odds of PA. In contrast, as awaited, urine samples did not yield any statistically significant associations for all tested pesticides. CONCLUSION: Some OCs were associated with higher odds of PA. The underlying mechanisms of pancreatic aggression need to be investigated to refine these findings. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinicaltrials.gov NCT04429490.

Assessment of cancer and dietary risks in commercially valuable marine organisms in coast of a region of future exploration (Equatorial South Atlantic).

The Equatorial South Atlantic region, spanning over 1700 km, is currently undergoing extensive exploitation through various activities such as oil extraction, desalination plants, marine mineral explorations, and wind power for green hydrogen production. This undoubtedly also contributes to the exacerbation of pre-existing chronic environmental impacts. This study aims to investigate the concentrations of 60 substances, categorized as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) from various classes including: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), as well as Pyrethroids (PPs), Triazines (TPs) and Organophosphates (OPPs) pesticides in consumable fish, shellfish, and crabs. The bivalve (Mytella charruana), crab (Ucides cordatus), and catfish (Sciades herzbergii) samples were collected in areas of ecological, environmental and economic importance. This data was used to estimate concentrations in the organisms, and to calculate cancer and human health risk. The most prevalent pollutant classes in the organisms were OCPs, followed by TPs and PPs. Shellfish and fish samples had more compounds indicating health risks, when compared to crabs. The substances causing cancer risks varied across organisms and study areas. The heightened cancer risks linked to specific compounds in various species highlight the urgent need to address persistent pollutants to prevent long-term health impacts on both humans and wildlife. Compounds such as PPs, TPs, and OPPs pose significant risks of neurotoxicity and endocrine disruption. This study underscores the interconnectedness of environmental and human health in coastal ecosystems, calling for continuous monitoring and adaptive management strategies to protect these fragile environments and the communities that rely on them.

Pesticides in fish from the Uruguay River and markets in Argentina and health risk assessment.

Organochlorine, organophosphate, triazole, and strobilurin pesticides were determined in fish samples. Relative standard deviations lower than 9.3% were obtained for organochlorine pesticides and 10.8% for other pesticides. Accuracy ranged from 73% to 119% for organochlorine pesticides and 80.4% to 116% for organophosphate, triazole, and strobilurin pesticides. A total of 28 pesticides were analysed and 7 of them were detected (exceeding 10 µg/kg) in some samples, with the highest concentration recorded at 68.5 µg/kg, corresponding to heptachlor epoxide A. The pesticide most frequently detected was ß HCH, found in 30 of the 100 analysed samples. Hazard Quotient values were estimated for men, women, and children. These values exceeded 1 for heptachlor epoxide in women and children, as well as for endrin in children. These findings emphasise the need for stricter controls to reduce fish contamination and mitigate health risks.

Feature-Agnostic Metabolomics for Determining Effective Sub-cytotoxic Doses of Common Pesticides in Human Cells.

While classical molecular biology assays can provide a measure of cellular response to chemical challenges, they rely on a single biological phenomenon to infer a broader measure of cellular metabolic response. These methods do not always afford the necessary sensitivity to answer questions of sub-cytotoxic effects, nor do they work for all cell types. Likewise, boutique assays such as cardiomyocyte beat rate may indirectly measure cellular metabolic response, but they too, are limited to measuring a specific biological phenomenon and are often limited to a single cell type. For these reasons, toxicological researchers need new approaches to determine metabolic changes across various doses in differing cell types, especially within the low-dose regime. The data collected herein demonstrate that LC-MS/MS-based untargeted metabolomics with a feature-agnostic view of the data, combined with a suite of statistical methods including an adapted environmental threshold analysis, provides a versatile, robust, and holistic approach to directly monitoring the overall cellular metabolomic response to pesticides. When employing this method in investigating two different cell types, human cardiomyocytes and neurons, this approach revealed separate sub-cytotoxic metabolomic responses at doses of 0.1 µM and 1 µM of chlorpyrifos and carbaryl. These findings suggest that this agnostic approach to untargeted metabolomics can provide a new tool for determining effective dose by metabolomics (EDm) of chemical challenges, such as pesticides, in a direct measurement of metabolomic response that is not cell type-specific or observable using traditional assays.

Neonicotinoid Pesticides Affect Developing Neurons in Experimental Mouse Models and in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell (iPSC)-Derived Neural Cultures and Organoids.

Neonicotinoids are synthetic, nicotine-derived insecticides used worldwide to protect crops and domestic animals from pest insects. The reported evidence shows that they are also able to interact with mammalian nicotine receptors (nAChRs), triggering detrimental responses in cultured neurons. Exposure to high neonicotinoid levels during the fetal period induces neurotoxicity in animal models. Considering the persistent exposure to these insecticides and the key role of nAChRs in brain development, their potential neurotoxicity on mammal central nervous system (CNS) needs further investigations. We studied here the neurodevelopmental effects of different generations of neonicotinoids on CNS cells in mouse fetal brain and primary cultures and in neuronal cells and organoids obtained from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC). Neonicotinoids significantly affect neuron viability, with imidacloprid (IMI) inducing relevant alterations in synaptic protein expression, neurofilament structures, and microglia activation in vitro, and in the brain of prenatally exposed mouse fetuses. IMI induces neurotoxic effects also on developing human iPSC-derived neurons and cortical organoids. Collectively, the current findings show that neonicotinoids might induce impairment during neuro/immune-development in mouse and human CNS cells and provide new insights in the characterization of risk for the exposure to this class of pesticides.

Pesticides and winemaking: A comprehensive review of conventional and emerging approaches.

The use of pesticides in viticulture may play a crucial role in ensuring the health and quality of grapes. This review analyzes the most common pesticides used, illustrating their classification and toxicity, and their variations throughout the winemaking process. Fungicides are generally harmless or mildly toxic, whereas insecticides are classified as either highly or moderately hazardous. Potential alternatives to synthetic pesticides in wine production are also reviewed, thereby including biopesticides and biological agents. Analytical methods for detecting and quantifying pesticide residues in wine are then described, including liquid chromatography and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. This review also discusses the impact of the winemaking process on pesticide content. Pesticides with strong hydrophobicity were more likely to accumulate in solid byproducts, whereas hydrophilic pesticides were distributed more in the liquid phase. Grape's skin contains lipids, so hydrophobic pesticides adsorb strongly on grape surfaces and the clarification has been shown to be effective in the reduction of hydrophobic compounds. Therefore, the final wine could have more quantities of hydrophilic pesticides. Alcoholic fermentation has been shown to be crucial in pesticide dissipation. However, pesticide residues in wine have been shown an antagonistic effect on yeasts, affecting the safety and quality of wine products. Therefore, proteomic and genomic analyses of yeast growth are reviewed to understand the effects of pesticides on yeast during fermentation. The last section describes new effective methods used in removing pesticides from grapes and wine, thereby improving product quality and reducing harmful effects.

A nationwide characterization of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in livestock and poultry food products across China: Residual levels, origin and the associated health risks.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are still occurring in various foodstuffs after the ban on their use. However, it remains unclear concerning the contamination source of OCPs in livestock and poultry food products and associated health risks. To fill this gap, we characterized the residual levels of 19 OCPs in multiple types of meats and eggs, which were sampled across China within the same period. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) were dominant in eggs, with the mean levels being 0.76 and 2.03 µg/kg for chicken eggs and duck eggs, respectively. By contrast, hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) were the top one OCP in beef and lamb, with its mean levels being 0.51 and 0.65 µg/kg, respectively. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) was rather detected in the poultry products. The componential ratio analysis implicated recent inputs of several banned OCPs including technical HCH and DDT, HCB and aldrin in multiple regions, which may origin from local industrial activities or possible illegal use. Risk assessment based on the risk quotient method suggested that daily consumption of cooked meats and eggs contaminated by dieldrin may pose a carcinogenic risk in adult residents of Jiangsu province. We concluded that OCPs remain present in meats and eggs at levels of health concern regionally in China.

Effects of pesticide exposure on the expression of selected genes in normal and cancer samples: Identification of predictive biomarkers for risk assessment.

Pesticides pivotal in controlling pests, can represent a threat for human health. Regulatory agencies constantly monitor their harmful effects, regulating their use. Several studies support a positive association between long-term exposure to pesticides and chronic pathologies, such as cancer. Geno-toxicological biomonitoring has proven to be valuable to assess genetic risks associated with exposure to pesticides, representing a promising tool to improve preventive measures and identify workers at higher risk. In this study, a differential gene expression analysis of 70 candidate genes deregulated upon pesticide exposure, was performed in 10 GEO human gene expression DataSets. It was found that six genes (PMAIP1, GCLM, CD36, SQSTM1, ABCC3, NR4A2) had significant AUC predictive values. Also, CD36 was upregulated in non-transformed cell samples and healthy workers, but downregulated in cancer cells. Further validation in larger groups of workers will corroborate the importance of the identified candidates as biomarkers of exposure/effect.

A multifunctional sensor for detecting tetracycline, 4-nitrophenol, and pesticides.

In recent years, due to the abuse of antibiotics, nitro explosives and pesticides, which have caused great harm to the environment and human health, social concerns have prompted researchers to develop more sensitive detection platforms for these pollutants. In this paper, a novel two-dimensional Zn (II) coordination polymer, [Zn(L)0.5(1,2-bimb)]·DMF (1), [H4L=[1,1':4',1''-terphenyl]-2, 2'',4, 4'' -tetracarboxylic acid, 1,2-bimb = 1,2-bis(imidazol-1-ylmethyl)benzene] was synthesized using a hydro-solvothermal method. Among commonly used organic solvents, 1 exhibits significant stability. Fast and efficient fluorescence response can be achieved for tetracycline (TET), 4-nitrophenol (4-NP), fluazinam (FLU), and abamectin benzoate (AMB) with low detection limits. A binary intelligent logic gate device with FLU and AMB as chemical input signals is successfully constructed, which provides a new idea for biochemical detection. In addition, a portable visual test paper has been prepared, which has high sensitivity, good selectivity, and simple operation. It can be used for rapid detection of pollutants in daily life and has broad application prospects. Finally, a detailed discussion was conducted on the fluorescence sensing mechanism of 1 for detecting TET, 4-NP, AMB and FLU.

Near-infrared fluorescent probe for ultrasensitive detection of organophosphorus pesticides and visualization of their interaction with butyrylcholinesterase in living cells.

The toxicity of organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) can catastrophically cause liver cell damage and inhibit the catalytic activity of cholinesterase. We designed and synthesized a near-infrared fluorescent probe HP-LZB with large Stokes shift which can specifically identify and detect butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and visually explore the interaction between OPs and endogenous BChE in living cells. Fluorescence was turned on when HP-LZB was hydrolyzed into HP-LZ in the presence of BChE, and OPs could inhibit BChE's activity resulting in a decrease of fluorescence. Six OPs including three oxon pesticides (paraoxon, chlorpyrifos oxon and diazoxon) and their corresponding thion pesticides (parathion, chlorpyrifos and diazinon) were investigated. Both in vitro and cell experiments indicated that only oxon pesticides could inhibit BChE's activity. The limits of detection (LODs) of paraoxon, chlorpyrifos oxon and diazoxon were as low as 0.295, 0.007 and 0.011 ng mL-1 respectively and the recovery of OPs residue in vegetable samples was satisfactory. Thion pesticides themselves could hardly inhibit the activity of BChE and are only toxic when they are converted to their corresponding oxon form in the metabolic process. However, in this work, thion pesticides were found not be oxidized into their oxon forms in living HepG2 cells due to the lack of cytochrome P450 in hepatoma HepG2 cell lines. Therefore, this probe has great application potential in effectively monitoring OPs in real plant samples and visually exploring the interaction between OPs and BChE in living cells.

Basic Principles for Setting MRLs for Pesticides in Food Commodities in Japan.

The Committee on Pesticides and Veterinary Drugs of the Food Sanitation Council under the Pharmaceutical Affairs and Food Sanitation Council set the maximum residue limits (MRLs) for residual pesticides, veterinary drugs, and feed additives in food commodities according to the basic principles for establishing MRLs for pesticides in food commodities in Japan. The basic principles consist of the following seven concepts: 1. Outline of setting Japanese MRLs for pesticide residue in food commodities; 2. Preparation of draft MRLs for pesticides in livestock commodities; 3. Preparation of draft MRLs for pesticides in fish and shellfish; 4. Technical guideline for setting MRLs for pesticides, etc., in honey; 5. Methods of setting standards for chemical substances used as pesticides in the past that are now detected as contaminants; 6. Concept of setting MRLs for pesticides at an extremely low level; and 7. Commodity groups and representative commodities regarding MRLs based on international harmonization. The present paper introduces and explains the basic principles for establishing MRLs for pesticides, veterinary drugs, and feed additives in food commodities.

Associations of exposure to organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls with chronic kidney disease among adults: the modifying effects of lifestyle.

Exposure to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) has been reported to be associated with renal impairment and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Nevertheless, the research results thus far have exhibited inconsistency, and the effect of lifestyle on their association is not clear. In this study, we assessed the correlation between serum OCPs/PCBs and CKD and renal function indicators including estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR) among 1721 Chinese adults. In order to further investigate the potential impact of lifestyle, we conducted joint associations of lifestyle and OCPs/PCBs on CKD. We found a negative correlation between p,p'-DDE and eGFR, while logistic regression results showed a positive correlation between PCB-153 and CKD (OR, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.21, 3.06). Quantile g-computation regression analyses showed that the association between co-exposure to OCPs/PCBs and CKD was not significant, but p,p'-DDE and PCB-153 were the main contributors to the negative and positive co-exposure effects of eGFR and CKD, respectively, which is consistent with the regression results. Participants with both relatively high PCB-153 exposure and an unhealthy lifestyle had the highest risk of CKD, in the joint association analysis. The observed associations were generally supported by the FAS-eGFR method. Our research findings suggest that exposure to OCPs/PCBs may be associated with decreased eGFR and increased prevalence of CKD in humans, and a healthy lifestyle can to some extent alleviate the adverse association between PCB-153 exposure and CKD.

Simultaneous analysis of pesticides and mycotoxins in primary processed foods: The case of bee pollen.

Primary Processed Foods are a class of food items that are ready for consumption after minimal processing in the supply chain. These products are ubiquitous in our daily diet, but so far a limited number of studies dealt with the optimization of quality control methods to check their content of contaminants. Among primary processed foods, bee pollen is a nutritionally acclaimed food supplement, whose contamination with pesticides and mycotoxins has been largely proven. For this reason, the present study aimed at optimizing for the first time a comprehensive LC-MS/MS method capable of analyzing 282 pesticides and 8 mycotoxins in bee pollen. To obtain a suitable method, two extraction procedures (QuEChERS and Accelerated Solvent Extraction), as well as different chromatographic gradients and columns, were tested. The optimized methodology, comprehending an extraction based on semi-automated QuEChERS, and an analytical method including inert LC column technology, was validated and applied to a sample set of 34 bee pollens. The analyzed samples collectively showed the presence of 41 pesticides and 1 mycotoxin.

A novel phosphotriesterase hybrid nanoflower-hydrogel sensor equipped with a smartphone detector for real-time on-site monitoring of organophosphorus pesticides.

Designing efficient and rapid methods for the detection of organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) residue is a prerequisite to mitigate their negative health impacts. In this study, we propose the concept of an enzyme catalysis system-based hydrogel kit integrated with a smartphone detector for in-field screening of OPs. Here, we rapidly prepared phosphotriesterase hybrid nanoflowers (PTE-HNFs) using a self-assembly strategy by adding external energy and embedded the nanocomposite in sodium alginate (SA) hydrogel to construct a target-responsive hydrogel kit. The color response of the kit is induced by catalyzing methyl parathion (MP) to produce p-nitrophenol. For on-site quantification, the color variations of the portable kit are converted into digital information through a smartphone, which exhibits an applicable linear range towards OPs. The hydrogel sensing platform demonstrates a wide linear range (1-150 µM) and low detection limit (0.15 µM) for MP while maintaining high reliability, excellent long-term stability, and ease of operation. Overall, the PTE-HNFs-based SA hydrogel kit provides a useful strategy for simple and sensitive detection of MP and holds great potential for applications in detecting OPs in food and environmental water.

The mode of action of different organochlorine pesticides families in mammalians.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) show differences in their chemical structure, mechanism of toxicity, and target organisms. However, OCPs also have some common characteristics such as high persistence in the environment, bioaccumulation, and toxicity which lead to health issues. Nowadays, the toxicity of OCPs is well known, but we still do not know all the specific molecular mechanisms leading to their toxicity in mammalians. Therefore, this review aims to collect data about the mode of action of various classes of OCPs, highlighting their differences and common behavioural reactions in the human and animal body. To discuss the OCPs molecular pathways and fate in different systems of the body, three organochlorine insecticides were selected (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, Hexachlorocyclohexane and Chlordecone), regarding to their widespread use, with consequent effects on the ecosystem and human health. Their common biological responses at the molecular scale and their different interactions in human and animal bodies were highlighted and presented.

Whale shark Rhyncodon typus exposure to organochlorine pesticides in the Southern Gulf of California, Mexico.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are persistent organic pollutants (POPs), characterized by their high mobility and environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and trophic transfer. Considering the highly migratory nature and longevity of the whale shark, this species can be considered as an early warning bioindicator of regional contamination from the marine environment. This work investigated the concentration of twenty OCPs in thirty whale shark skin biopsies, collected between 2014 and 2015 in Bahía La Paz (Gulf of California, Mexico). Mean detected OCP levels were 33.99 ± 105.23 ng/g dw (dry weight), and ΣChlordane, ΣDrin, and ΣHCH showed the highest concentrations. Statistically differences in mean OCP concentration were not found by sex and size. PC1 and PC2 accounted for 68.1 % and 16.1 % of the total variance, respectively. The presence of higher levels of some pesticides than their corresponding metabolites suggests recent applications related to agricultural activity in the surrounding areas of Baja California peninsula.

Exposure of Syrian refugee agricultural workers to pesticides in Lebanon: a socio-economic and political lens.

This article adopts a socio-economic and political lens to elucidate the interplay of factors that heighten the vulnerability of Syrian refugee agricultural workers and their exposure to pesticides in Lebanon. It provides a comprehensive understanding for the interconnected social, political and economic factors at the global, regional, national and local levels and how they increase the vulnerability of Syrian refugee agricultural workers, particularly their exposure to pesticides. The global factors highlight the shifts from colonialism to state-controlled economies to neoliberal policies. These changes have prioritized the interests of large agricultural schemes and multinationals at the expense of small and medium-sized agriculture. Consequently, there has been a boost in pesticides demand, coupled with weak regulations and less investment in agriculture in the countries of the Global South. The article explains how the dynamic interaction of climate change and conflicts in the Middle East and North Africa region has negatively impacted the agriculture sector and food production, which led to an increased potential for pesticide use. At the national and local levels, Lebanon's social, political and economic policies have resulted in the weakening of the agricultural sector, the overuse of pesticides, and the intensification of the Syrian refugee agricultural workers' vulnerability and exposure to pesticides. The article recommends that researchers, policymakers, and practitioners adopt a political-economic-social lens to analyze and address the full dynamic situation facing migrant and refugee workers in Lebanon and other countries and promote equity in the agricultural sector globally.