Impact of jet pulverization and wet milling techniques on properties of aripiprazole long-acting injection and absorption mechanism research in vivo.

This study aims to explore the influence of wet milling and jet pulverization on the aripiprazole microcrystalline long-acting injection. Crystal form and particle size distribution were taken as inspection indicators in vitro, and process parameters were optimized. The formulation prepared by wet milling (AMLAI-WM) was shown to undergo a slight conversion of crystal form by DSC, PXRD, TG, FT-IR and have a wider particle size distribution with D50 and Span values of 2.967 µm and 3.457 compared to the formulation fabricated by jet pulverization (AMLAI-JP) with 2.887 µm and 2.258 respectively. In addition, the in vitro release of AMLAI-WM was faster, whereby the pharmacokinetic data indicated that AMLAI-WM was absorbed more quickly within five days with AUC0-5d of 5243.7 µg·L-1·h and 4818.28 µg·L-1·h, respectively. Furthermore, no statistically significant differences in Cmax, tmax and AUC between AMLAI-JP and the commercial formulation (Abilify Maintena™) were found. The absorption mechanism was studied and showed a 1.4-fold later Tmax after depletion of macrophages and significantly lower Cmax and AUC after inhibiting angiogenesis, indicating inflammatory granuloma could facilitate drug plasma exposure. Overall, we demonstrated that jet pulverization was a good strategy for long-acting microcrystalline injection, and that the absorption behavior was affected by both particle size distribution and inflammatory granuloma.

Formulation and In Vitro and In Silico Characterization of "Nano-in-Micro" Dry Powder Inhalers Containing Meloxicam.

Pulmonary delivery has high bioavailability, a large surface area for absorption, and limited drug degradation. Particle engineering is important to develop inhalable formulations to improve the therapeutic effect. In our work, the poorly water-soluble meloxicam (MX) was used as an active ingredient, which could be useful for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer, cystic fibrosis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. We aimed to produce inhalable "nano-in-micro" dry powder inhalers (DPIs) containing MX and additives (poly-vinyl-alcohol, leucine). We targeted the respiratory zone with the microcomposites and reached a higher drug concentration with the nanonized active ingredient. We did the following investigations: particle size analysis, morphology, density, interparticular interactions, crystallinity, in vitro dissolution, in vitro permeability, in vitro aerodynamics (Andersen cascade impactor), and in silico aerodynamics (stochastic lung model). We worked out a preparation method by combining wet milling and spray-drying. We produced spherical, 3-4 µm sized particles built up by MX nanoparticles. The increased surface area and amorphization improved the dissolution and diffusion of the MX. The formulations showed appropriate aerodynamical properties: 1.5-2.4 µm MMAD and 72-76% fine particle fraction (FPF) values. The in silico measurements proved the deposition in the deeper airways. The samples were suitable for the treatment of local lung diseases.

Preparation and characterisation of tetrandrine nanosuspensions and in vitro estimate antitumour activity on A549 lung cancer cell line.

Aim: The aim of this study was to improve solubility and antitumour ability in vitro of tetrandrine (Tet) via preparing nanosuspensions (NSs).Methods: The Tet-NSs were prepared by wet media milling. The Tet-CCS-NS was prepared with croscarmellose sodium (CCS) as single stabiliser. The Tet-HACC-TPGS-NS was manufactured with D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1,000 succinate (TPGS) and hydroponically trimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan (HACC) as combined stabilisers. Physicochemical properties of the NSs such as particle size, surface morphologies, crystallinity and molecular interactions were investigated. In addition, the in vitro dissolution and antitumour activities using A549 human lung cancer cells were evaluated.Results: The mean particle sizes and Zeta potential of freshly prepared Tet-CCS-NS, Tet-HACC-TPGS-NS were 469.1 ± 14nm and 157.3 ± 5nm, -29.4 ± 0.26 mV and 23.3 ± 0.36 mV, respectively. In comparison to pure Tet, the cumulative dissolution of Tet-NSs were increased by 4 ∼ 5 times in 2 h. In vitro antitumour studies on Tet- NSs in A549 cells, the cell survival rate of the Tet-NSs at high concentration (30-50µg/ml) were less than 10% within 48 h. Meanwhile, Tet-NSs were revealed to induce A549 cells apoptosis and promote cell uptake.Conclusion: The present study has proved that the Tet-NSs can increase Tet solubility as well as improve Tet antitumour activity in vitro.

Study on the stabilization mechanisms of wet-milled cepharanthine nanosuspensions using systematical characterization.

Objectives: Stability issues are inevitable problems that are encountered in nanosuspension (NS) technology developments and in the industrial application of pharmaceuticals. This study aims to assess the stability of wet-milled cepharanthine NSs and elucidate the stabilization mechanisms of different stabilizers.Methods: The aggregation state was examined via scanning electron microscopy, laser diffraction, and rheometry. The zeta potential, stabilizer adsorption, surface tension, and drug-stabilizer interactions were employed to elucidate the stabilization mechanisms.Results: The results suggest that croscarmellose sodium (CCS), D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS), or polyvinyl pyrrolidone VA64 (PVP VA64) alone was able to prevent nanoparticle aggregation for at least 30 days. Attempts to evaluate the stability mechanisms of different stabilization systems revealed that CCS improved the steric-kinetic stabilization of the NSs, attributed to its high viscosity, swelling capacity, and physical barrier effects. In contrast, the excellent physical stability of TPGS systems was mainly due to the reduced surface tension and higher crystallinity. PVP VA64 can adsorb onto the surfaces of nanoparticles and stabilize the NS via steric forces.Conclusion: This study demonstrated the complex effects of CCS, TPGS, and PVP VA64 on cepharanthine NS stability and presented an approach for the rational design of stable NSs.

Nano-scale and molecular-level understanding of wet-milled indomethacin/poloxamer 407 nanosuspension with TEM, suspended-state NMR, and Raman measurements.

We investigated the formation and stabilization mechanisms of indomethacin (IMC)/poloxamer 407 nanosuspensions. Stable nanosuspensions were prepared via 24 h wet-milling of three IMC forms (γ form, α form, and amorphous) with poloxamer 407. Cryogenic-transmission electron microscopy images of nanoparticles obtained using γ-form IMC indicated a rhombic-plate shape. In contrast, needle-like nanoparticles were observed in the nanosuspensions of α-form and amorphous IMC. Suspended-state cross polarization 13C NMR and Raman measurements directly detected the molecular states of IMC in nanosuspensions. IMC existed in its initial crystal form when γ-form and α-form IMC were used; amorphous IMC transformed into crystalline α-form IMC. Suspended-state 13C pulse saturation transfer NMR measurements revealed the molecular state of poloxamer 407 on the surface of IMC crystals. The polypropylene oxide group adsorbed to the IMC crystal surface via hydrophobic interactions, while the polyethylene oxide group on the surface was as flexible as that in polymeric micelles. The equilibrium of poloxamer 407 between micelle and nanocrystal surfaces was slower than the NMR time scale, which could stabilize the dispersion of the nanoparticles in water. The time interval evaluation during the wet-milling process revealed that α-form IMC nanocrystals could be efficiently prepared via wet-milling using amorphous IMC as the starting material.

Fabrication of multicomponent amorphous bufadienolides nanosuspension with wet milling improves dissolution and stability.

Multicomponent formulations have attracted increasing attention because of their favourable patient compliance and greater therapeutic effect. The aim of this study was to develop a multicomponent nanosuspension formulation of bufadienolides, the antitumor components of a traditional Chinese medicine, toad venom, using a wet-milling technique to improve its dissolution behaviour. Croscarmellose sodium (CCS) and sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) were chosen as the combined stabilizers of the nanosuspension. A Taguchi orthogonal array design was used for this study to optimize the formulation and process parameters. The optimized nanosuspension was characterized by its particle size distribution, zeta potential, morphology, crystallinity, molecular interactions, stability and dissolution. The results showed that the nanosuspension was a homogeneous amorphous system with average particle sizes of <100 nm and significantly improved dissolution behaviour. It was also physically stable for at least 2 months; steric and kinetic stabilization were its main stability mechanisms. These findings suggested that the use of wet milling to fabricate nanosuspensions is a promising method for achieving the fast and synchronized dissolution of multicomponent formulations, presumably increasing the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Nanocristais de hidroximetilnitrofural: preparação, caracterização fí­sico-quí­mica, avaliação da atividade in vitro antileishmania / Hydroxymethylnitrofurazone nanocrystals: optimization, characterization, leishmanicidal activity evaluation

De acordo com a Organização Mundial de Saúde, existem atualmente 17 doenças tropicais negligenciadas prevalentes em 149 países, afetando aproximadamente um bilhão de pessoas, a nível global. A leishmaniose, problema de saúde prevalente nos países em desenvolvimento, é endêmica em aproximadamente 98 países e territórios, com 350 milhões de pessoas em risco e 12 milhões de casos de infecção no mundo. A transmissão da doença ocorre pela picada de flebotomíneos fêmeas infectadas. Essa doença apresenta três formas principais: leishmaniose cutânea (LC), leishmaniose mucocutânea (LMC) e leishmaniose visceral (LV). Enquanto a leishmaniose cutânea é a forma mais comum da doença, a leishmaniose visceral é a mais grave e pode ser fatal se não for tratada. Em 2016, o Brasil reportou 3.626 e 12.690 casos de LC e LV, respectivamente. O candidato a fármaco hidroximetilnitrofural (NFOH) mostrou atividade contra o parasita da doença de chagas e da leishmaniose. Embora o NFOH seja promissor para o tratamento da leishmaniose, esse possui baixa solubilidade em água. A nanotecnologia tem sido empregada como plataforma para o desenvolvimento de formas farmacêuticas inovadoras com maior eficácia e segurança. A redução do tamanho de partículas em escala nanométrica permite aumentar a biodisponibilidade oral de fármacos pouco solúveis em água. Os nanocristais apresentam vantagens, tais como, o aumento da solubilidade de saturação e da velocidade de dissolução, decorrentes do aumento da área superficial da partícula. Além disso, esses apresentam maior adesividade às membranas biológicas, membrana celular e superfície do trato gastrointestinal. No presente trabalho utilizou-se a moagem por via úmida em escala reduzida para a obtenção dos nanocristais de NFOH. Diferentes tensoativos foram avaliados empregando o método selecionado, os tensoativos poloxamer 188 e poloxamer 407 foram os que favoreceram a redução do tamanho das partículas. Tal característica foi observada na caracterização físico-química das nanosuspensões de NFOH. A utilização desse método permitiu a obtenção de nanocristais de NFOH, com diâmetro hidrodinâmico médio (DHM) de 184,8 ± 0,5 a 325,9 ± 2,2 nm, índice de polidispersão (IP) de 0,21 ± 0,01 a 0,57 ± 0,01 e DHM de 191,3 ± 2,1 a 326,8 ± 4,6 nm e IP de 0,21 ± 0,01 a 0,50 ± 0,01, respectivamente para o poloxamer 188 e 407. O uso de ambos os tensoativos resultaram em distribuição monomodal de tamanho das partículas. As formulações foram obtidas por meio de planejamento fatorial completo e experimentos por superfície de resposta tendo como variáreis independentes as concentrações de NFOH, dos tensoativos e o tempo de moagem. A resposta, DHM, foi determinada utilizando espalhamento de luz dinâmica (DLS). Adicionalmente, as avaliações empregando calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC) e difração de raio X (DRX) revelaram que não houve interação entre o fármaco e os excipientes, assim como, não foi observada alteração na estrutura cristalina do NFOH. A microscopia eletrônica de varredura demonstrou a morfologia característica do estado cristalino. Além disso, a preparação liofilizada apresentou instabilidade após armazenamento por três meses a temperatura de 25 e 4 °C

According to the World Health Organization, there are currently 17 neglected tropical diseases prevalent in 149 countries, affecting approximately one billion people globally. Leishmaniasis, a health problem prevalent in developing countries, is endemic in approximately 98 countries and territories, with 350 million people at risk and 12 million cases of infection worldwide. The transmission of the disease occurs by the bite of infected female sandflies. This disease has three main forms: cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL) and visceral leishmaniasis (VL). While cutaneous leishmaniasis is the most usual form of the disease, visceral leishmaniasis is the most serious and can be fatal if left untreated. In 2016, Brazil reported 3.626 and 12.690 cases of LC and LV, respectively. The drug candidate for hydroxymethylnitrofurazone (NFOH) showed activity against the parasite of chagas disease and leishmaniasis. Although NFOH is promising for the treatment of leishmaniasis, it has low solubility in water. Nanotechnology has been used as a platform for the development of innovative pharmaceutical forms with greater effectiveness and safety. Particle size reduction on the nanoscale enables the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs to be increased. Nanotechnology has been used as a platform for the development of innovative pharmaceutical forms, improving effectiveness and safety. Particle size reduction on the nanoscale enables the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs to be increased. Nanocrystals have advantages such as increased saturation solubility and dissolution rate due to the increase in the surface area of the particle. In addition, this present greater adhesiveness to the biological membranes, cell membrane and surface of the gastrointestinal tract. In the present work, wet scale milling was used to obtain NFOH nanocrystals. Different surfactants were evaluated using the selected method, poloxamer 188 and poloxamer 407 surfactants favored the reduction of particle size. This characteristic was observed in the physical-chemical characterization of NFOH nanosuspensions. The use of NFOH nanocrystals with a mean hydrodynamic diameter (DHM) of 184.8 ± 0.5 to 325.9 ± 2.2 nm, polydispersity index (IP) of 0.21 ± 0, 01 to 0.57 ± 0.01 for poloxamer 188 and DHM of 191.3 ± 2.1 at 326.8 ± 4.6 nm and IP of 0.21 ± 0.01 at 0.50 ± 0.01 for poloxamer 407, both with monomodal size distribution. The formulations were obtained by means of complete factorial planning and surface response experiments having as independent variables the concentrations of NFOH, surfactants and milling time. The response, DHM, was determined using dynamic light scattering (DLS). In addition, evaluations using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (DRX) revealed that there was no change in the crystal structure of NFOH and interaction between the drug and the excipients. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated the characteristic morphology of the crystalline state. In addition, the lyophilized preparation was instable after storage for three months at 25 and 4 ° C

Evaluation of High-Performance Curcumin Nanocrystals for Pulmonary Drug Delivery Both In Vitro and In Vivo.

This paper focused on formulating high-performance curcumin spray-dried powders for inhalation (curcumin-DPIs) to achieve a high lung concentration. Curcumin-DPIs were produced using wet milling combined with the spray drying method. The effects of different milling times on particle size and aerodynamic performance were investigated. The curcumin-DPIs were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and in vitro dissolution. Furthermore, the in vivo pharmacokinetic behavior and tissue distribution after pulmonary administration were also evaluated. Results showed that the drug dissolution was significantly enhanced by processing into curcumin-DPIs. The aerodynamic results indicated that the DPIs displayed a good aerosol performance. The plasma curcumin concentration was obviously enhanced by inhalation, and most of the curcumin-DPIs were deposited in the lung. This study demonstrated that inhalation was an effective way to carry drug to the lung, and curcumin-DPIs were hopeful for lung cancer treatment in the future.

Influence of micronization on improving phytoestrogenic effects of wheat bran.

The influence of micronization on improving the phytoestrogenic effects of wheat bran was studied. Wheat bran samples were prepared by ball milling, and an animal experiment was carried out by feeding 8-month-old female rats wheat bran. The effect of wheat bran samples on serum estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P) levels of female 8-month-old rats was investigated. The wheat bran with a median diameter of 392.1 µm was micronized to 91.1 and 9.7 µm in median diameter by dry milling and wet milling for 5 hours, respectively. Microscopic observation and X-ray diffraction revealed more potential damage from wet milling than dry milling on the crystal structure of wheat bran granules. Almost all particles were dissolved and there was no obvious crystal peak in the 5-hour wet-milled wheat bran. The serum E2 and P levels of the 8-month-old rats fed wet-milled bran were increased significantly, 2.2 times higher than that of the same aged control group. The experimental results indicated that wet milling could destroy the crystal structure of wheat bran granules and improve the phytoestrogenic effects of wheat bran.

Evaluation of nanodispersion of iron oxides using various polymers.

In order to create Fe2O3 and Fe2O3·H2O nanoparticles, various polymers were used as dispersing agents, and the resulting effects on the dispersibility and nanoparticulation of the iron oxides were evaluated. It was revealed that not only the solution viscosity but also the molecular length of the polymers and the surface tension of the particles affected the dispersibility of Fe2O3 and Fe2O3·H2O particles. Using the dispersing agents 7.5% hydroxypropylcellulose-SSL, 6.0% Pharmacoat 603, 5.0% and 6.5% Pharmacoat 904 and 7.0% Metolose SM-4, Fe2O3 nanoparticles were successfully fabricated by wet milling using Ultra Apex Mill. Fe2O3·H2O nanoparticles could also be produced using 5.0% hydroxypropylcellulose-SSL and 4.0 and 7.0% Pharmacoat 904. The index for dispersibility developed in this study appears to be an effective indicator of success in fabricating nanoparticles of iron oxides by wet milling using Ultra Apex Mill.