The Conjugative Relaxase TrwC Promotes Integration of Foreign DNA in the Human Genome.

Bacterial conjugation is a mechanism of horizontal DNA transfer. The relaxase TrwC of the conjugative plasmid R388 cleaves one strand of the transferred DNA at the oriT gene, covalently attaches to it, and leads the single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) into the recipient cell. In addition, TrwC catalyzes site-specific integration of the transferred DNA into its target sequence present in the genome of the recipient bacterium. Here, we report the analysis of the efficiency and specificity of the integrase activity of TrwC in human cells, using the type IV secretion system of the human pathogen Bartonella henselae to introduce relaxase-DNA complexes. Compared to Mob relaxase from plasmid pBGR1, we found that TrwC mediated a 10-fold increase in the rate of plasmid DNA transfer to human cells and a 100-fold increase in the rate of chromosomal integration of the transferred DNA. We used linear amplification-mediated PCR and plasmid rescue to characterize the integration pattern in the human genome. DNA sequence analysis revealed mostly reconstituted oriT sequences, indicating that TrwC is active and recircularizes transferred DNA in human cells. One TrwC-mediated site-specific integration event was detected, proving that TrwC is capable of mediating site-specific integration in the human genome, albeit with very low efficiency compared to the rate of random integration. Our results suggest that TrwC may stabilize the plasmid DNA molecules in the nucleus of the human cell, probably by recircularization of the transferred DNA strand. This stabilization would increase the opportunities for integration of the DNA by the host machinery.IMPORTANCE Different biotechnological applications, including gene therapy strategies, require permanent modification of target cells. Long-term expression is achieved either by extrachromosomal persistence or by integration of the introduced DNA. Here, we studied the utility of conjugative relaxase TrwC, a bacterial protein with site-specific integrase activity in bacteria, as an integrase in human cells. Although it is not efficient as a site-specific integrase, we found that TrwC is active in human cells and promotes random integration of the transferred DNA in the human genome, probably acting as a DNA chaperone until it is integrated by host mechanisms. TrwC-DNA complexes can be delivered to human cells through a type IV secretion system involved in pathogenesis. Thus, TrwC could be used in vivo to transfer the DNA of interest into the appropriate cell and promote its integration. If used in combination with a site-specific nuclease, it could lead to site-specific integration of the incoming DNA by homologous recombination.

Zebrafish embryo model of Bartonella henselae infection.

Bartonella henselae (Bh) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen that has been associated with a variety of human diseases, including bacillary angiomatosis that is characterized by vasoproliferative tumor-like lesions on the skin of some immunosuppressed individuals. The study of Bh pathogenesis has been limited to in vitro cell culture systems due to the lack of an animal model. Therefore, we wanted to investigate whether the zebrafish embryo could be used to model human infection with Bh. Our data showed that Tg(fli1:egfp)(y1) zebrafish embryos supported a sustained Bh infection for 7 days with >10-fold bacterial replication when inoculated in the yolk sac. We showed that Bh recruited phagocytes to the site of infection in the Tg(mpx:GFP)uwm1 embryos. Infected embryos showed evidence of a Bh-induced angiogenic phenotype and an increase in the expression of genes encoding pro-inflammatory factors and pro-angiogenic markers. However, infection of zebrafish embryos with a deletion mutant in the major adhesin (BadA) resulted in little or no bacterial replication and a diminished host response, providing the first evidence that BadA is critical for in vivo infection. Thus, the zebrafish embryo provides the first practical model of Bh infection that will facilitate efforts to identify virulence factors and define molecular mechanisms of Bh pathogenesis.

Strategy for identification & characterization of Bartonella henselae with conventional & molecular methods.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Bartonella henselae is a fastidious gram-negative bacterium usually causing self limiting infections in immunocompetent individuals but often causes potentially life threatening infection, such as bacillary angiomatosis in immunocompromised patients. Both diagnosis of infections and research into molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis have been hindered by lack of appropriate and reliable diagnostic techniques. We undertook this study to standardize methods to characterize B. henselae in clinical samples to diagnose Bartonella infection correctly. METHODS: B. henselae ATCC 49882 strain was procured from American type culture collection, USA. This strain was revived and maintained in the laboratory, and identification and characterization of this strain was done by conventional and molecular techniques, which included culture on various media, staining by different methods including electron microscopy, biochemical analysis by conventional methods and API, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for amplification of citrate synthase gene followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). RESULTS: This organism was biochemically inert due to slow growth and generated unique identification code with API. The amplification of the citrate-synthase gene with primers yielded a 381 bp product followed by specific RFLP profile for B. henselae. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS: Bartonella is fastidious and fragile organism and should be handled carefully. Extra effort and careful observation are required to isolate and characterize this organism.

Evidence of Bacteroides fragilis protection from Bartonella henselae-induced damage.

Bartonella henselae is able to internalize endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), which are resistant to the infection of other common pathogens. Bacteroides fragilis is a gram-negative anaerobe belonging to the gut microflora. It protects from experimental colitis induced by Helicobacter hepaticus through the polysaccharide A (PSA). The aim of our study was to establish: 1) whether B. fragilis colonization could protect from B. henselae infection; if this event may have beneficial effects on EPCs, vascular system and tissues. Our in vitro results establish for the first time that B. fragilis can internalize EPCs and competes with B. henselae during coinfection. We observed a marked activation of the inflammatory response by Real-time PCR and ELISA in coinfected cells compared to B. henselae-infected cells (63 vs 23 up-regulated genes), and after EPCs infection with mutant B. fragilis ΔPSA (≅90% up-regulated genes) compared to B. fragilis. Interestingly, in a mouse model of coinfection, morphological and ultrastructural analyses by hematoxylin-eosin staining and electron microscopy on murine tissues revealed that damages induced by B. henselae can be prevented in the coinfection with B. fragilis but not with its mutant B. fragilis ΔPSA. Moreover, immunohistochemistry analysis with anti-Bartonella showed that the number of positive cells per field decreased of at least 50% in the liver (20±4 vs 50±8), aorta (5±1 vs 10±2) and spleen (25±3 vs 40±6) sections of mice coinfected compared to mice infected only with B. henselae. This decrease was less evident in the coinfection with ΔPSA strain (35±6 in the liver, 5±1 in the aorta and 30±5 in the spleen). Finally, B. fragilis colonization was also able to restore the EPC decrease observed in mice infected with B. henselae (0.65 vs 0.06 media). Thus, our data establish that B. fragilis colonization is able to prevent B. henselae damages through PSA.

Bartonella henselae engages inside-out and outside-in signaling by integrin ß1 and talin1 during invasome-mediated bacterial uptake.

The VirB/D4 type IV secretion system (T4SS) of the bacterial pathogen Bartonella henselae (Bhe) translocates seven effector proteins (BepA-BepG) into human cells that subvert host cellular functions. Two redundant pathways dependent on BepG or the combination of BepC and BepF trigger the formation of a bacterial uptake structure termed the invasome. Invasome formation is a multi-step process consisting of bacterial adherence, effector translocation, aggregation of bacteria on the cell surface and engulfment, and eventually, complete internalization of the bacterial aggregate occurs in an F-actin-dependent manner. In the present study, we show that Bhe-triggered invasome formation depends on integrin-ß1-mediated signaling cascades that enable assembly of the F-actin invasome structure. We demonstrate that Bhe interacts with integrin ß1 in a fibronectin- and VirB/D4 T4SS-independent manner and that activated integrin ß1 is essential for both effector translocation and the actin rearrangements leading to invasome formation. Furthermore, we show that talin1, but not talin2, is required for inside-out activation of integrin ß1 during invasome formation. Finally, integrin-ß1-mediated outside-in signaling by FAK, Src, paxillin and vinculin is necessary for invasome formation. This is the first example of a bacterial entry process that fully exploits the bi-directional signaling capacity of integrin receptors in a talin1-specific manner.

Transfer of R388 derivatives by a pathogenesis-associated type IV secretion system into both bacteria and human cells.

Bacterial type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are involved in processes such as bacterial conjugation and protein translocation to animal cells. In this work, we have switched the substrates of T4SSs involved in pathogenicity for DNA transfer. Plasmids containing part of the conjugative machinery of plasmid R388 were transferred by the T4SS of human facultative intracellular pathogen Bartonella henselae to both recipient bacteria and human vascular endothelial cells. About 2% of the human cells expressed a green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene from the plasmid. Plasmids of different sizes were transferred with similar efficiencies. B. henselae codes for two T4SSs: VirB/VirD4 and Trw. A ΔvirB mutant strain was transfer deficient, while a ΔtrwE mutant was only slightly impaired in DNA transfer. DNA transfer was in all cases dependent on protein TrwC of R388, the conjugative relaxase, implying that it occurs by a conjugation-like mechanism. A DNA helicase-deficient mutant of TrwC could not promote DNA transfer. In the absence of TrwB, the coupling protein of R388, DNA transfer efficiency dropped 1 log. The same low efficiency was obtained with a TrwB point mutation in the region involved in interaction with the T4SS. TrwB interacted with VirB10 in a bacterial two-hybrid assay, suggesting that it may act as the recruiter of the R388 substrate for the VirB/VirD4 T4SS. A TrwB ATPase mutant behaved as dominant negative, dropping DNA transfer efficiency to almost null levels. B. henselae bacteria recovered from infected human cells could transfer the mobilizable plasmid into recipient Escherichia coli under certain conditions, underscoring the versatility of T4SSs.

Autocrine role for interleukin-8 in Bartonella henselae-induced angiogenesis.

The gram-negative bacterium Bartonella henselae is capable of causing angiogenic lesions as a result of infection. Previously, it has been shown that B. henselae infection can result in production of the chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8). In this study, we demonstrated that monocytes, endothelial cells, and hepatocytes produce IL-8 in response to B. henselae infection. We also investigated the role of IL-8 in B. henselae-induced endothelial cell proliferation and capillary tube formation. Both in vitro angiogenesis assays were IL-8 dependent. B. henselae-mediated inhibition of apoptosis, as indicated by gene expression of Bax and Bcl-2, was also shown to be IL-8 dependent in endothelial cells. Furthermore, infection of endothelial cells with B. henselae stimulated upregulation of the IL-8 chemokine receptor CXCR2. Infection of human endothelial cells by B. henselae resulting in IL-8 production likely plays a central role in the ability of this organism to cause angiogenesis during infection.