Socioeconomic Inequalities in Alcohol and Tobacco Consumption: A National Ecological Study in Mexican Adolescents.

Alcohol and cigarettes are the psychoactive substances that adolescents use most frequently. When both addictions are combined, they carry the worst burden of disease globally. The objective of this study was to identify whether socioeconomic factors correlate with alcohol and tobacco consumption in Mexican adolescents aged 10 years or more and to establish the relationship in the consumption between the two substances. This ecological study utilized data describing alcohol and tobacco consumption among adolescents aged 10-16 years (n = 48,837 ≈ N = 11,621,100). Having ever consumed any alcohol-containing beverage constituted alcohol consumption. Smoking a cigarette within 30 days constituted cigarette consumption. For both variables, the state-level percentages reported in the survey were used. Diverse socioeconomic variables were collected from official sources. Data on the prevalence of tobacco use and alcohol consumption were entered into an Excel database estimated for each of the states of the Mexican Republic, as well as the socioeconomic variables. We performed the analysis using Stata 14. Consumption prevalence was 15.0% for alcohol and 4.2% for tobacco. Alcohol consumption was not correlated with any studied socioeconomic variable (p > 0.05). The prevalence of tobacco consumption among elementary school students correlated (p < 0.05) with the portion of the population living in private dwellings without sewage, drainage, or sanitation (r = 0.3853). The prevalence of tobacco consumption among middle-school adolescents correlated with the portion of the employed population that earned up to two minimum wages (r = 0.3960), the percentage in poverty by income 2008 (r = 0.4754) and 2010 (r = 0.4531), and the percentage in extreme poverty by income 2008 (r = 0.4612) and 2010 (r = 0.4291). Positive correlations were found between tobacco consumption and alcohol consumption among both elementary (r = 0.5762, p=0.0006) and middle-school children (r = 0.7016, p=0.0000). These results suggest that certain socioeconomic factors correlate with tobacco consumption but not alcohol consumption. A correlation between alcohol consumption and tobacco consumption was observed. The results can be used for developing interventions in adolescents.

Costos de atención del cáncer de mama en el Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del Estado, México / Health-care costs of breast cancer at the Institute of Social Security and Services for Government Workers in Mexico

Resumen: Objetivo: Calcular los costos del tratamiento habitual y normativo del cáncer de mama (CaMa) en el Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del Estado (ISSSTE). Material y métodos: Se utilizó la metodología de procesos, desde la perspectiva del prestador. Se identificaron los recursos utilizados durante un año de tratamiento a través de cuestionarios en línea aplicados a oncólogos (tratamiento habitual) de diferentes hospitales y a partir de la revisión de guías clínicas (tratamiento normativo). Resultados: El costo anual habitual fue de $113.6 millones de dólares. Los costos en hospitales regionales y generales para el estadio I son 1.23 y 1.12 mayores al de alta especialidad. Los costos en los estadios 0-II son mayores al normativo por mayor uso de consultas y quimioterapia. Conclusiones: El costo anual del CaMa representó 3.8% del presupuesto del ISSSTE en 2017. Incrementar la eficiencia de los recursos destinados a su tratamiento requeriría mejorar la adherencia a las guías clínicas y la detección temprana.

Abstract: Objective: To estimate the cost of common versus normative practice in the treatment of breast cancer (BrCa) at the Mexican Institute of Social Security and Services for Government Workers (ISSSTE). Materials and methods: A process approach from the perspective of providers. We identified the resources utilized during one year of treatment through online questionnaires administered to oncologists in various hospitals (common treatment) as well as by conducting a clinical guidelines review (normative treatment). Results: The cost of common treatment was USD113.6 million annually. For stage I cases, it proved 1.23 and 1.12 times higher in regional and general as opposed to highly specialized hospitals. For stages 0-II cases, it was higher than normative treatment owing to greater use of consultations and chemotherapy. Conclusions: BrCa accounts for 3.8% of the ISSSTE budget in 2017. Achieving greater efficiency in the use of resources allocated for BrCa treatment requires stricter adherence to clinical guidelines as well as early detection.

Health-care costs of breast cancer at the Institute of Social Security and Services for Government Workers in Mexico / Costos de atención del cáncer de mama en el Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del Estado, México.

Objective: To estimate the cost of common versus normative practice in the treatment of breast cancer (BrCa) at the Mexican Institute of Social Security and Services for Government Workers (ISSSTE). Materials and methods: A process approach from the perspective of providers. We identified the resources utilized during one year of treatment through online questionnaires administered to oncologists in various hospitals (common treatment) as well as by conducting a clinical guidelines review (normative treatment). Results: The cost of common treatment was USD113.6 million annually. For stage I cases, it proved 1.23 and 1.12 times higher in regional and general as opposed to highly specialized hospitals. For stages 0-II cases, it was higher than normative treatment owing to greater use of consultations and chemotherapy. Conclusions: BrCa accounts for 3.8% of the ISSSTE budget in 2017. Achieving greater efficiency in the use of resources allocated for BrCa treatment requires stricter adherence to clinical guidelines as well as early detection.

Prevalencias y factores asociados con el uso de métodos anticonceptivos modernos en adolescentes, 2012 y 2018 / Prevalence and associated factors of modern contraceptive methods use among adolescents, 2012 and 2018

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar la prevalencia de uso de métodos anticonceptivos (MAC) modernos en adolescentes de 12 a19 años en 2012 y 2018-19, y factores asociados con su uso consistente. Material y métodos: A partir de las Encuestas Nacionales de Salud y Nutrición 2012 y 2018-19, se construyeron variables de interés: uso de anticonceptivos reversibles de acción prolongada (ARAP), protección dual y uso consistente de MAC. Se calcularon prevalencias y modelos logísticos para uso consistente de MAC. Resultados: El uso de ARAP en la última relación se incrementó entre encuestas (4.1 a 6.3%). Tener mayor edad, no embarazo y asistencia escolar incrementaron la posibilidad de uso consistente en mujeres; en hombres, la asistencia escolar la incrementó, y vivir en unión, inicio temprano de vida sexual y consumir >100 cigarrillos la disminuyeron. Conclusión: Es necesario fomentar el acceso y uso de MAC de manera consistente, basado en el respeto a los derechos sexuales y reproductivos.

Abstract: Objective: To analyze the prevalence of modern contraceptive methods (CM) use in adolescents aged 12 to 19 years in 2012 and 2018-19, and the factors associated with consistent use of modern CM. Materials and methods: Using the Health and Nutrition National Surveys 2012 and 2018-19 we calculated the outcome variables: long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARC) use, dual protection and consistent use of CM. We estimated prevalence by sex and adjusted logistic models with consistent use (which is understood as CM use in the first and last sexual relationship) as a dependent variable. Results: LARC use in last intercourse increased between surveys (4.1 to 6.3%). For women, being older, not having been pregnant, and school attendance increased the likelihood of consistent use. For men, school attendance increases the likelihood while cohabiting, early sexual initiation and having smoked more than 100 cigarettes reduces it. Conclusion: It is necessary to promote access and consistent use of MC, based on respect for sexual and reproductive rights.

Maternidad en la adolescencia en localidades menores de 100 000 habitantes en las primeras décadas del milenio / Adolescent motherhood in under 100 000 inhabitants communities in the first decades of the millennium

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar en localidades menores de 100 000 habitantes la tendencia de la maternidad en la adolescencia y factores relacionados. Material y métodos: Análisis transversal de 16 686 mujeres en localidades menores de 100 000 habitantes a partir de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (Ensanut) 2006, 2012 y 100k 2018. Se ajustaron modelos Poisson robustos con variable dependiente maternidad adolescente para mujeres de 12-19 y 20-24 años. Resultados: Asistir a la escuela y usar anticonceptivos modernos disminuye la prevalencia de maternidad adolescente en ambos grupos de edad. Entre las adolescentes, contar con esquema de financiamiento en salud, y el inicio de vida sexual temprano para el caso de las adultas, se asocia positivamente con maternidad adolescente. Conclusiones: Es necesario fortalecer las políticas públicas para modificar factores estructurales que proporcionen opciones de vida; es preciso mantener y fortalecer las acciones y cobertura propuestas por la Estrategia Nacional para la Prevención del Embarazo en Adolescentes (ENAPEA) focalizándolas en esta población.

Abstract: Objective: To analyze the adolescent motherhood trend and associated factors in under-100 000-inhabitants communities. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional analysis of 16 686 women in under-100 000-inhabitants communities inEncuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición(Ensanut) 2006, 2012 and 100k 2018. We adjusted robust Poisson models with adolescent motherhood as dependent variable for women aged 12-19 and 20-24. Results: Attending school and using modern contraceptives decrease adolescent motherhood prevalence in both age groups. Among adolescent girls, having a health financing scheme, and early sexual debut in the case of adults, is positively associated with adolescent motherhood. Conclusions: It is necessary to strengthen public policies seeking to modify structural factors that provide life choices, and to maintain and strengthen the actions and coverage proposed byEstrategia Nacional para la Prevención del Embarazo en Adolescentes(ENAPEA) targeting this population.

Atención en salud materno-infantil y maternidad adolescente en localidades menores de 100 000 habitantes / Maternal and child healthcare and adolescent maternity in under 100 000 inhabitants communities

Resumen: Objetivo: Comparar la cobertura de atención continua de salud materna y de atención en la primera infancia en mujeres con y sin maternidad en la adolescencia (MA), que habitan en localidades menores de 100 000 habitantes. Material y métodos: Análisis transversal de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 100k (Ensanut 100k) 2018 en 767 mujeres de 12 a 49 años residentes en localidades con menos de 100 000 habitantes que tuvieron su último hijo dos años anteriores a la encuesta. Se calcularon coberturas de atención a partir de modelos de regresión logística. Resultados: Las mujeres con MA tienen menor cobertura continua en salud materna que las que no tuvieron MA (8.1 y 19.6%, respectivamente). La cobertura de atención del infante con contenido adecuado fue menor a 30% y no hubo diferencias entre los grupos. Conclusión: Es necesario fortalecer acciones focalizadas en este grupo de mujeres para reducir brechas en las coberturas y mejorar la salud materno-infantil.

Abstract: Objective: To compare the coverage of continuous maternal healthcare and early childhood care in women with and without adolescent motherhood (AM) who live in under-100 000-inhabitants communities. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional analysis of Ensanut 100k 2018 of 767 women aged 12 to 49 years living in under-100 000-inhabitants communities who had their last birth two years before the survey. Results: Women with AM have lower continuous coverage of maternal care than those without AM (8.1 and 19.6%, respectively). Infant care coverage with adequate content was lower than 30%, and there were no differences between the groups. Conclusions: It is necessary to strengthen actions focused on this group of women in order to reduce the gaps in coverage and improve maternal and child health.

Atención médica y acciones de autocuidado en personas que viven con diabetes, según nivel socioeconómico / Medical care and self-care actions in people living with diabetes, according to socioeconomic level

Resumen: Objetivo: Caracterizar la atención médica y las acciones de autocuidado en población con diabetes, en localidades de menos de 100 000 habitantes. Material y métodos: Con información de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 100k (Ensanut 100k), se obtuvieron dos modelos de regresión logística: no realizar las cinco acciones básicas en la última consulta médica y no realizar acciones prioritarias de autocuidado. Resultados: Tener baja escolaridad, pertenecer al estrato económico bajo y hablar lengua indígena incrementan las posibilidades de no realizar acciones de autocuidado. Por el contrario, al incrementarse la edad, se disminuyen las posibilidades de autocuidado en 3%. Pertenecer a un hogar indígena y al tercil bajo incrementan las posibilidades de que el personal de salud no realice las cinco acciones básicas durante la consulta. Conclusión: Es indispensable que se establezca un programa de control de diabetes que incluya educación a pacientes y cursos de actualización al personal médico.

Abstract: Objective: To characterize medical care and self-care actions in a population with diabetes in locations smaller than 100 000 inhabitants Materials and methods: With information from the Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 100k (Ensanut 100k), two logistic regression models were obtained: not performing five basic actions in the last consultation and not taking priority self-care actions. Results: Having low schooling, belonging to the low economic stratum, and speaking indigenous language, increase the probability of not taking self-care actions. On the contrary, as age increases, the chances of self-care are reduced by 3%. Belonging to an indigenous household and the low tercile, increases the chances that health personnel will not perform the five basic actions during the consultation. Conclusions: It is essential that a diabetes control program be established that includes patient education and update courses for medical staff

[Analysis and reflections on the 2019 initiative that reforms Mexico's Ley General de Salud]. / Análisis y reflexiones sobre la iniciativa de reforma a la Ley General de Salud de México 2019.

The initiative including an Act Project for reforming the Ley General de Salud of Mexico, submitted in 2019 to the Congress of the Union, proposes the creation of a system of universal and free access to health services and associated medicines for the population lacking of social security benefits, and the creation of the Instituto de Salud para el Bienestar. This article analyzes the substantive aspects of the project, with the aim of motivating the reflection of the proposed reform and its most important components, to contribute to achieving its aim. The conclusion is that the main themes of the Project require precision in relevant areas, such as the transformation of the financing scheme for care, the strengthening of stewardship and governance, the responsibility in the provision of services, and the regulation and access to medicines. The contributions of academics, decision makers and social organizations will be essential to create a public health policy based on evidence and social equity.

La iniciativa con Proyecto de Decreto por el que se reforma la Ley General de Salud de México presentada en 2019 ante el Congreso de la Unión propone la creación de un sistema de acceso universal y gratuito a los servicios de salud y a medicamentos asociados para la población sin seguridad social y la creación del Instituto de Salud para el Bienestar. Este artículo analiza algunos aspectos sustantivos del Proyecto de Decreto con el objetivo de motivar la reflexión sobre la reforma propuesta y sus componentes más importantes para contribuir a su propósito. Se concluye que los principales temas del proyecto requieren precisión en rubros relevantes, como la transformación del esquema de financiamiento para la atención, el fortalecimiento de la rectoría y gobernanza, la responsabilidad en la provisión de servicios y la regulación y acceso a medicamentos. Las aportaciones de académicos, tomadores de decisiones y organizaciones sociales serán indispensables para una política pública de salud basada en evidencia y con equidad social.

Análisis y reflexiones sobre la iniciativa de reforma a la Ley General de Salud de México 2019 / Analysis and reflections on the 2019 initiative that reforms Mexico's Ley General de Salud

Resumen: La iniciativa con Proyecto de Decreto por el que se reforma la Ley General de Salud de México presentada en 2019 ante el Congreso de la Unión propone la creación de un sistema de acceso universal y gratuito a los servicios de salud y a medicamentos asociados para la población sin seguridad social y la creación del Instituto de Salud para el Bienestar. Este artículo analiza algunos aspectos sustantivos del Proyecto de Decreto con el objetivo de motivar la reflexión sobre la reforma propuesta y sus componentes más importantes para contribuir a su propósito. Se concluye que los principales temas del proyecto requieren precisión en rubros relevantes, como la transformación del esquema de financiamiento para la atención, el fortalecimiento de la rectoría y gobernanza, la responsabilidad en la provisión de servicios y la regulación y acceso a medicamentos. Las aportaciones de académicos, tomadores de decisiones y organizaciones sociales serán indispensables para una política pública de salud basada en evidencia y con equidad social.

Abstract: The initiative including an Act Project for reforming the Ley General de Salud of Mexico, submitted in 2019 to the Congress of the Union, proposes the creation of a system of universal and free access to health services and associated medicines for the population lacking of social security benefits, and the creation of the Instituto de Salud para el Bienestar. This article analyzes the substantive aspects of the project, with the aim of motivating the reflection of the proposed reform and its most important components, to contribute to achieving its aim. The conclusion is that the main themes of the Project require precision in relevant areas, such as the transformation of the financing scheme for care, the strengthening of stewardship and governance, the responsibility in the provision of services, and the regulation and access to medicines. The contributions of academics, decision makers and social organizations will be essential to create a public health policy based on evidence and social equity.

Adherence of Mexican physicians to clinical guidelines in the management of breast cancer: Effect of the National Catastrophic Health Expenditure Fund.

AIM: To assess the adherence of physicians to the Medical-Care Guidelines for Malignant Breast Tumors in Mexico, before and after the allocation of federal subsidies from the Catastrophic Health Expenditure Fund (FPGC by its Spanish initials) to accredited hospitals, a strategy implemented with the view of offering free treatment to women with breast cancer (BC). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Based on a cross-sectional design, we gathered information on 479 BC patients who had been attended to at in four FPGC-accredited hospitals. Analysis centered on those treated within either three years before or three years after the accreditation of their attending hospitals. The four hospitals analyzed were located in the North, South, West and Center of the country. Information on all medical procedures performed during treatment was drawn from hospital medical records. Information on the socio-demographic characteristics of the patients was obtained by means of face-to-face interviews conducted in their homes. RESULTS: Adherence of physicians to the Guidelines grew by 12.8 percent (from 43.4 to 56.2 percent) after FPGC accreditation (p<0.001) and varied according to the clinical stage of the disease, with much lower levels of adherence observed in the advanced stages (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The FPGC strategy increased the adherence of physicians to the Medical-Care Guidelines for Malignant Breast Tumors in Mexico.

Global, Regional, and National Cancer Incidence, Mortality, Years of Life Lost, Years Lived With Disability, and Disability-Adjusted Life-Years for 29 Cancer Groups, 1990 to 2016: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study.

Importance: The increasing burden due to cancer and other noncommunicable diseases poses a threat to human development, which has resulted in global political commitments reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals as well as the World Health Organization (WHO) Global Action Plan on Non-Communicable Diseases. To determine if these commitments have resulted in improved cancer control, quantitative assessments of the cancer burden are required. Objective: To assess the burden for 29 cancer groups over time to provide a framework for policy discussion, resource allocation, and research focus. Evidence Review: Cancer incidence, mortality, years lived with disability, years of life lost, and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) were evaluated for 195 countries and territories by age and sex using the Global Burden of Disease study estimation methods. Levels and trends were analyzed over time, as well as by the Sociodemographic Index (SDI). Changes in incident cases were categorized by changes due to epidemiological vs demographic transition. Findings: In 2016, there were 17.2 million cancer cases worldwide and 8.9 million deaths. Cancer cases increased by 28% between 2006 and 2016. The smallest increase was seen in high SDI countries. Globally, population aging contributed 17%; population growth, 12%; and changes in age-specific rates, -1% to this change. The most common incident cancer globally for men was prostate cancer (1.4 million cases). The leading cause of cancer deaths and DALYs was tracheal, bronchus, and lung cancer (1.2 million deaths and 25.4 million DALYs). For women, the most common incident cancer and the leading cause of cancer deaths and DALYs was breast cancer (1.7 million incident cases, 535 000 deaths, and 14.9 million DALYs). In 2016, cancer caused 213.2 million DALYs globally for both sexes combined. Between 2006 and 2016, the average annual age-standardized incidence rates for all cancers combined increased in 130 of 195 countries or territories, and the average annual age-standardized death rates decreased within that timeframe in 143 of 195 countries or territories. Conclusions and Relevance: Large disparities exist between countries in cancer incidence, deaths, and associated disability. Scaling up cancer prevention and ensuring universal access to cancer care are required for health equity and to fulfill the global commitments for noncommunicable disease and cancer control.

Dissonant health transition in the states of Mexico, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.

BACKGROUND: Child and maternal health outcomes have notably improved in Mexico since 1990, whereas rising adult mortality rates defy traditional epidemiological transition models in which decreased death rates occur across all ages. These trends suggest Mexico is experiencing a more complex, dissonant health transition than historically observed. Enduring inequalities between states further emphasise the need for more detailed health assessments over time. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2013 (GBD 2013) provides the comprehensive, comparable framework through which such national and subnational analyses can occur. This study offers a state-level quantification of disease burden and risk factor attribution in Mexico for the first time. METHODS: We extracted data from GBD 2013 to assess mortality, causes of death, years of life lost (YLLs), years lived with disability (YLDs), disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and healthy life expectancy (HALE) in Mexico and its 32 states, along with eight comparator countries in the Americas. States were grouped by Marginalisation Index scores to compare subnational burden along a socioeconomic dimension. We split extracted data by state and applied GBD methods to generate estimates of burden, and attributable burden due to behavioural, metabolic, and environmental or occupational risks. We present results for 306 causes, 2337 sequelae, and 79 risk factors. FINDINGS: From 1990 to 2013, life expectancy from birth in Mexico increased by 3·4 years (95% uncertainty interval 3·1-3·8), from 72·1 years (71·8-72·3) to 75·5 years (75·3-75·7), and these gains were more pronounced in states with high marginalisation. Nationally, age-standardised death rates fell 13·3% (11·9-14·6%) since 1990, but state-level reductions for all-cause mortality varied and gaps between life expectancy and years lived in full health, as measured by HALE, widened in several states. Progress in women's life expectancy exceeded that of men, in whom negligible improvements were observed since 2000. For many states, this trend corresponded with rising YLL rates from interpersonal violence and chronic kidney disease. Nationally, age-standardised YLL rates for diarrhoeal diseases and protein-energy malnutrition markedly decreased, ranking Mexico well above comparator countries. However, amid Mexico's progress against communicable diseases, chronic kidney disease burden rapidly climbed, with age-standardised YLL and DALY rates increasing more than 130% by 2013. For women, DALY rates from breast cancer also increased since 1990, rising 12·1% (4·6-23·1%). In 2013, the leading five causes of DALYs were diabetes, ischaemic heart disease, chronic kidney disease, low back and neck pain, and depressive disorders; the latter three were not among the leading five causes in 1990, further underscoring Mexico's rapid epidemiological transition. Leading risk factors for disease burden in 1990, such as undernutrition, were replaced by high fasting plasma glucose and high body-mass index by 2013. Attributable burden due to dietary risks also increased, accounting for more than 10% of DALYs in 2013. INTERPRETATION: Mexico achieved sizeable reductions in burden due to several causes, such as diarrhoeal diseases, and risks factors, such as undernutrition and poor sanitation, which were mainly associated with maternal and child health interventions. Yet rising adult mortality rates from chronic kidney disease, diabetes, cirrhosis, and, since 2000, interpersonal violence drove deteriorating health outcomes, particularly in men. Although state inequalities from communicable diseases narrowed over time, non-communicable diseases and injury burdens varied markedly at local levels. The dissonance with which Mexico and its 32 states are experiencing epidemiological transitions might strain health-system responsiveness and performance, which stresses the importance of timely, evidence-informed health policies and programmes linked to the health needs of each state. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública.

Hospitalization and mortality in Mexico due to breast cancer since its inclusion in the catastrophic expenditures scheme.

OBJECTIVE: To compare trends in hospital discharges and mortality due to breast cancer (BC) in Mexico from 2004 to 2012 by insurance condition before and after incorporating BC comprehensive treatment into the System of Social Protection in Health (Sistema de Protrección Social en Salud, SPSS) in 2007. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data on BC hospital discharges and mortality reported in women aged 25 years and over were obtained from the National Health Information System. Mortality rates were adjusted by age and state. RESULTS: At the national level, a growing tendency in hospital discharges was observed, mainly for women without social security, while mortality rate remained constant. Mortality rates by state show that lower marginalization index corresponded to higher mortality. CONCLUSIONS: A differential behavior was observed among women according to insurance condition, partly due to the inclusion of BC treatment in the SPSS.

Hospitalization and mortality in Mexico due to breast cancer since its inclusion in the catastrophic expenditures scheme / Hospitalización y mortalidad en México por cáncer de mama a partir de su inclusión en el esquema de gastos catastróficos

Abstract Objective: To compare trends in hospital discharges and mortality due to breast cancer (BC) in Mexico from 2004 to 2012 by insurance condition before and after incorporating BC comprehensive treatment into the System of Social Protection in Health (Sistema de Protrección Social en Salud, SPSS) in 2007. Materials and methods: Data on BC hospital discharges and mortality reported in women aged 25 years and over were obtained from the National Health Information System. Mortality rates were adjusted by age and state. Results: At the national level, a growing tendency in hospital discharges was observed, mainly for women without social security, while mortality rate remained constant. Mortality rates by state show that lower marginalization index corresponded to higher mortality. Conclusions: A differential behavior was observed among women according to insurance condition, partly due to the inclusion of BC treatment in the SPSS.

Resumen Objetivo: Comparar las tendencias de egresos hospitalarios y mortalidad por cáncer de mama (CaMa) en México de 2004 a 2012, según esquema de aseguramiento, antes y después de la incorporación del tratamiento integral del CaMa al Sistema de Protección Social en Salud (SPSS) en 2007. Material y métodos: Los egresos hospitalarios y de mortalidad por CaMa en mujeres de 25 años o más se obtuvieron del Sistema Nacional de Información en Salud. Las tasas de mortalidad se ajustaron por edad y entidad federativa. Resultados: A nivel nacional, hubo una tendencia creciente de los egresos hospitalarios, principalmente para mujeres sin seguridad social, mientras que la tasa de mortalidad se mantuvo constante. Las tasas de mortalidad fueron mayores en estados con menor índice de marginación. Conclusiones: Se observó un comportamiento diferencial entre las mujeres según esquema de aseguramiento en salud debido, en parte, a la inclusión del tratamiento de CaMa al SPSS.

National survey of oral/dental conditions related to tobacco and alcohol use in Mexican adults.

Oral diseases are a major burden on individuals and health systems. The aim of this study was to determine whether consumption of tobacco and alcohol were associated with the prevalence of oral/dental problems in Mexican adults. Using data from the National Performance Evaluation Survey 2003, a cross-sectional study part of the World Health Survey, dental information from a representative sample of Mexico (n = 22,229, N = 51,155,740) was used to document self-reported oral/dental problems in the 12 months prior to the survey. Questionnaires were used to collect information related to sociodemographic, socioeconomic, and other risk factors. Three models were generated for each age group (18-30, 31-45 and 46-98 years). The prevalence of oral/dental conditions was 25.7%. Adjusting for sex, schooling, socioeconomic position, diabetes, and self-reported health, those who used tobacco (sometimes or daily) (OR = 1.15, p = 0.070; OR = 1.24, p < 0.01; and OR = 1.16, p < 0.05, for each age group respectively) or alcohol (moderate or high) (OR = 1.26, p < 0.001; OR = 1.18, p < 0.01 and OR = 1.30, p < 0.001, for each age group respectively) had a higher risk of reporting oral/dental problems. Because tobacco and alcohol use were associated with self-reported oral/dental problems in one out of four adults, it appears advisable to ascertain how direct is such link; more direct effects would lend greater weight to adopting measures to reduce consumption of tobacco and alcohol for the specific purpose of improving oral health.

Association between edentulism and angina pectoris in Mexican adults aged 35 years and older: a multivariate analysis of a population-based survey.

BACKGROUND: The possible association between oral infection and chronic inflammation and cardiovascular disease risk has been studied intensively. The present study is designed to determine the strength of association between edentulism and angina pectoris in Mexican adults aged 35 years and older. METHODS: Using the tools and sampling strategies of the World Health Survey of the World Health Organization, cross-sectional data were collected in Mexico in the National Performance Assessment Survey (probabilistic, multistage, and cluster sampling). Dental information was available for 20 of the 32 states of Mexico. Angina and edentulism are self-reported in this study. Statistical analysis was performed using binary logistic regression adjusting for complex samples. RESULTS: A total of 13,966 participants, representing a population of 29,853,607 individuals, were included. Of the complete study population, 3,052,263 (10.2%) were completely toothless, and 673,810 (2.3%) were diagnosed with angina pectoris. After adjusting for smoking, alcohol consumption, diabetes, body mass index, and sex, the effect of edentulism on angina was modified by age (interaction), being more marked in the younger age group (odds ratio [OR] = exp(2.5597) =12.93) than in the older individuals surveyed (OR = exp(2.5597 + (-0.0334)) =12.51). Additionally, low physical activity (OR = 1.51; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.03 to 2.22) and higher socioeconomic status (OR = 1.37; 95% CI = 1.00 to 1.90) were more likely to be associated with angina pectoris. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the results of this study, conducted in a representative sample of Mexican adults, suggest that an association exists between edentulism and angina pectoris. Additional studies are necessary to elucidate the underlying mechanism for this association.

Efectos del Seguro Popular sobre el gasto en salud en hogares mexicanos a diez años de su implementación / Effect of Seguro Popular on health expenditure in Mexican households ten years after its implementation

Objetivo. Estimar el efecto del Seguro Popular (SP) sobre la probabilidad de los hogares de incurrir en gasto en salud (GS), de presentar gastos excesivos en salud (GES) y sobre el monto gastado. Material y métodos. Análisis transversal utilizando datos de la ENSANUT 2012. El efecto del SP se estimó con métodos de pareamiento por puntaje de propensión (n=12 250). Se estimaron el efecto promedio en los hogares con SP (tratados) y diferencias en la mediana de gasto. Resultados. El SP reduce 3.6% la probabilidad del GS y en 7.1% en hogares con enfermos diabéticos o hipertensos. Para el GES la reducción fue de 36% en el ámbito nacional, y para hogares con enfermos y hospitalizados, de 46.5 y 41.7%, respectivamente. Conclusiones. El SP tiene un efecto positivo, al proteger a los hogares del GS y GES, principalmente en hogares con necesidades de salud. Sin embargo, aún existen retos para el SP que incluyen la mejora del acceso de la población de menores recursos a los servicios.

Objective. To estimate the effect of Seguro Popular Program (SP) on the probability of health spending (HE), the excessive expenditure on health (EEH) and the amount of health spending. Materials and methods. Cross-sectional analysis was carried out using data from the ENSANUT 2012. Propensity score matching was used to estimate the effect of SP (n=12.250). We estimated the average effect on SP homes (treated) and differences in median spending. Results. SP reduces the likelihood of HE in 3.6 and 7.1% in households with patients diagnosed with DM and/or hypertension, respectively. The reduction in EEH was 36% at national level. This reduction was 46.5 and 41.7% among households with hospitalized patients and those reporting a sick member. Conclusions. SP has a positive effect, protecting households from having either HE or EEH among those with greater health needs. However, there are still some challenges for the SP, which include improving access to services for low-income population.

Factores asociados con la utilización y el gasto en medicamentos en México / Factor associated with medicines utilization and expenditure in Mexico

Objetivo. Analizar la utilización y el gasto en medicamentos y sus factores asociados, así como discutir sus implicaciones para las políticas farmacéuticas. Material y métodos. Análisis en una muestra de 193 228 individuos, a partir de la Encuesta Nacional en Salud y Nutrición 2012. Se estimaron modelos logit, probit y modelos de regresión cuantílica, evaluando tres dimensiones de acceso a medicamentos: (1) probabilidad de utilización de medicamentos en el caso de un problema de salud; (2) probabilidad de incurrir en gasto y (3) monto gastado. Resultados. Las personas afiliadas al IMSS tuvieron mayor probabilidad de utilizar medicamentos (RM=1.2, p<0.05). Estar afiliado al IMSS, ISSSTE o SP redujo la probabilidad de gasto frente a quienes no cuentan con seguro médico (RM alrededor de 0.7, p<0.01). La mediana de gasto osciló entre 195.3 y 274.2 pesos mexicanos. Conclusiones. Los factores asociados con la utilización y el gasto indican que persisten inequidades en el acceso.

Objective. To analyze medicine utilization and expenditure and associated factors in Mexico, as well as to discuss their implications for pharmaceutical policy. Materials and methods. Analysis of a sample of 193 228 individuals from the Mexican National Health and Nutrition Survey 2012. Probability and amount of expenditure were estimated using logit, probit and quantile regression models, evaluating three dimensions of access to medicines: (1) likelihood of utilization of medicines in the event of a health problem, (2) probability of incurring expenses and (3) amount spent on medicines. Results. Individuals affiliated to IMSS were more likely to use medicines (OR=1.2, p<0.05). Being affiliated to the IMSS, ISSSTE or SP reduced the likelihood of spending compared to those without health insurance (about RM 0.7, p<0.01). Median expenditures varied between 195.3 and 274.2 pesos. Conclusions. Factors associated with the use and expenditure on medicines indicate that inequities in the access to medicines persist.

Metabolic syndrome in Mexican adults: results from the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2006 / Síndrome metabólico en adultos mexicanos: resultados de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2006

OBJECTIVE: To examine the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MS) and its associated risk factors in Mexican adults aged 20 years or older, using data derived from the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2006 (ENSANUT 2006). MATERIAL AND METHODS: The ENSANUT 2006 was conducted between October 2005 and May 2006. Questionnaires were administered to 45 446 adult subjects aged 20 years or older who were residents from urban and rural areas. Anthropometric and blood pressure measurements were obtained from all subjects and fasting blood specimens were provided by 30 percent of participants. We randomly selected a sub-sample of 6 613 from which laboratory measurements were carried out for glucose, insulin, triglycerides, total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol. For this analysis, we included only results from eight or more hours of fasting samples (n=6 021). We used individual weighted factors in the statistical analysis and considered the survey's complex sampling design to obtain variances and confidence intervals. All analyses were done using SPSS 15.0. RESULTS: In accordance with definitions by the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III), the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (AHA/NHLBI), and the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), the prevalence of MS in Mexican adults aged 20 years or older was 36.8, 41.6 and 49.8 percent, respectively. Women were more affected than men due to the higher prevalence of central obesity among females. Prevalence of MS increased with age and was higher among populations living in metropolitan areas, in the west-central region, and those with lower education. DISCUSSION: Regardless of the MS definition, a large proportion of Mexican adults has the condition, so preventive measures are needed to decrease the prevalence of the MS components in this population. MS can predict type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, two of the main causes ...

OBJETIVO: Describir la prevalencia de síndrome metabólico (SM) y los factores asociados en población mexicana de 20 años y más de edad a partir de datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2006 (ENSANUT 2006). MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: La ENSANut 2006 se realizó entre octubre de 2005 y mayo de 2006. Se entrevistó a 45446 adultos de 20 años y más residentes de localidades rurales y urbanas. A todos ellos se les tomaron medidas antropométricas y de tensión arterial. Al 30 por ciento de los adultos entrevistados se les tomó una muestra de sangre, preferentemente en ayunas. Se seleccionó al azar una submuestra de 6613 individuos para la determinación de glucosa, insulina, triglicéridos, colesterol total y colesterol HDL. Para el análisis de laboratorio sólo se incluyeron las muestras obtenidas en ayuno de 8 horas o más (n=6021). Se utilizaron las definiciones de SM publicadas por el ATP III, modificada por la American Heart Association; National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (AHA/NHLBI) y la International Diabetes Federation (IDF). Para el análisis estadístico se utilizaron los factores de expansión individuales y para el cálculo de las varianzas e intervalos de confianza se tomó en consideración el diseño complejo de la encuesta usando SPSS 15.0. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia nacional de SM en adultos de 20 años de edad y más, de acuerdo con el ATP III, AHA/NHLBI e IDF fue de 36.8, 41.6 y 49.8 por ciento, respectivamente. Con las tres definiciones, la prevalencia fue mayor en las mujeres que en los hombres, debido principalmente al mayor porcentaje de obesidad en las mujeres. La prevalencia de SM aumentó conforme a la edad y fue ligeramente mayor en la población residente de las áreas metropolitanas, en la región centro-occidente y con el menor nivel de escolaridad. DISCUSIÓN: Independientemente de la definición utilizada, una gran proporción de mexicanos presenta SM, el cual es considerado como predictor de diabetes tipo 2 y enfermedad ...