Two-step reaction mechanism reveals new antioxidant capability of cysteine disulfides against hydroxyl radical attack.

Cysteine disulfides, which constitute an important component in biological redox buffer systems, are highly reactive toward the hydroxyl radical (•OH). The mechanistic details of this reaction, however, remain unclear, largely due to the difficulty in characterizing unstable reaction products. Herein, we have developed a combined approach involving mass spectrometry (MS) and theoretical calculations to investigate reactions of •OH with cysteine disulfides (Cys-S-S-R) in the gas phase. Four types of first-generation products were identified: protonated ions of the cysteine thiyl radical (+Cys-S•), cysteine (+Cys-SH), cysteine sulfinyl radical (+Cys-SO•), and cysteine sulfenic acid (+Cys-SOH). The relative reaction rates and product branching ratios responded sensitively to the electronic property of the R group, providing key evidence to deriving a two-step reaction mechanism. The first step involved •OH conducting a back-side attack on one of the sulfur atoms, forming sulfenic acid (-SOH) and thiyl radical (-S•) product pairs. A subsequent H transfer step within the product complex was favored for protonated systems, generating sulfinyl radical (-SO•) and thiol (-SH) products. Because sulfenic acid is a potent scavenger of peroxyl radicals, our results implied that cysteine disulfide can form two lines of defense against reactive oxygen species, one using the cysteine disulfide itself and the other using the sulfenic acid product of the conversion of cysteine disulfide. This aspect suggested that, in a nonpolar environment, cysteine disulfides might play a more active role in the antioxidant network than previously appreciated.

Photochemistry of HOSO radical in the gas phase.

The photochemistry of HOSO in the near- and deep-UV spectral range has been studied in the gas phase using the multireference configuration interaction MRCI+Q/aug-cc-pV(T+d)Z level of theory. HOSO is found to be a nonplanar radical in its ground electronic state with a torsion angle calculated to be 49.7°. The lowest three doublet electronic states are characterized by a large transition dipole moment and are implicated in the photodissociation of HOSO in the gas phase to generate SO and OH as products. Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen products may also result after UV absorption to reach the first excited state, and this channel competes with the production of OH and SO.

Interconnection of reactive oxygen species chemistry across the interfaces of atmospheric, environmental, and biological processes.

Oxidation reactions are ubiquitous and play key roles in the chemistry of the atmosphere, in water treatment processes, and in aerobic organisms. Ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydrogen polyoxides (H2Ox, x > 2), associated hydroxyl and hydroperoxyl radicals (HOx = OH and HO2), and superoxide and ozonide anions (O2(-) and O3(-), respectively) are the primary oxidants in these systems. They are commonly classified as reactive oxygen species (ROS). Atmospheric chemistry is driven by a complex system of chain reactions of species, including nitrogen oxides, hydroxyl and hydroperoxide radicals, alkoxy and peroxy radicals, and ozone. HOx radicals contribute to keeping air clean, but in polluted areas, the ozone concentration increases and creates a negative impact on plants and animals. Indeed, ozone concentration is used to assess air quality worldwide. Clouds have a direct effect on the chemical composition of the atmosphere. On one hand, cloud droplets absorb many trace atmospheric gases, which can be scavenged by rain and fog. On the other hand, ionic species can form in this medium, which makes the chemistry of the atmosphere richer and more complex. Furthermore, recent studies have suggested that air-cloud interfaces might have a significant impact on the overall chemistry of the troposphere. Despite the large differences in molecular composition, concentration, and thermodynamic conditions among atmospheric, environmental, and biological systems, the underlying chemistry involving ROS has many similarities. In this Account, we examine ROS and discuss the chemical characteristics common to all of these systems. In water treatment, ROS are key components of an important subset of advanced oxidation processes. Ozonation, peroxone chemistry, and Fenton reactions play important roles in generating sufficient amounts of hydroxyl radicals to purify wastewater. Biochemical processes within living organisms also involve ROS. These species can come from pollutants in the environment, but they can also originate endogenously, initiated by electron reduction of molecular oxygen. These molecules have important biological signaling activities, but they cause oxidative stress when dysfunction within the antioxidant system occurs. Excess ROS in living organisms can lead to problems, such as protein oxidation-through either cleavage of the polypeptide chain or modification of amino acid side chains-and lipid oxidation.

Atmospheric formation of the NO3 radical from gas-phase reaction of HNO3 acid with the NH2 radical: proton-coupled electron-transfer versus hydrogen atom transfer mechanisms.

The gas-phase reaction of nitric acid with the amidogen radical under atmospheric conditions has been investigated using quantum mechanical (QCISD and CCSD(T)) and DFT (B3LYP, BH&HLYP, M05, M05-2X, and M06-2X) calculations with the 6-311+G(2df,2p), aug-cc-pVTZ, aug-cc-pVQZ and extrapolation to the CBS basis sets. The reaction begins with the barrierless formation of a hydrogen-bonded complex, which can undergo two different reaction pathways, in addition to the decomposition back to the reactants. The lowest energy barrier pathway involves a proton-coupled electron-transfer mechanism, whereas the highest energy barrier pathway takes place through a hydrogen atom transfer mechanism. The performance of the different DFT functionals in predicting both the geometries and relative energies of the stationary points investigated has been analyzed.

Unexpected reactivity of amidogen radical in the gas phase degradation of nitric acid.

The gas phase reaction between nitric acid and amidogen radical has been investigated employing high level quantun-mechanical electronic structure methods and variational transition state theory kinetic calculations. Our results show that the reaction proceeds through a proton coupled electron transfer mechanism with a rate constant of 1.81 × 10(-13) cm(3)·molecule(-1)·s(-1) at 298 K. This value is similar to the rate constants for the reactions of hydroxyl radical with either ammonia or nitric acid. An analysis of these data in the context of the chemistry of the atmosphere suggests that the amidogen radical, formed in the oxidation of ammonia by hydroxyl radical, reacts with nitric acid regenerating ammonia. On the basis of these findings, we propose a potential new catalytic-like cycle which couples the oxidation of ammonia by hydroxyl radical and the reaction of nitric acid with amidogen radical in the Earth's atmosphere.

The reaction of formaldehyde carbonyl oxide with the methyl peroxy radical and its relevance in the chemistry of the atmosphere.

The reaction of formaldehyde carbonyl oxide (H2COO) with the methyl peroxy radical (CH3OO), a prototype of the reactions of carbonyl oxides with alkyl peroxy radicals of potential interest in atmospheric chemistry, has been investigated by means of quantum-mechanical electronic structure methods (CASSCF, CASPT2, UQCISD, and UCCSD(T)) and DFT functionals (B3LYP, BH&HLYP, M05 and M06-2X). Two reaction paths have been found for the lowest-barrier reaction, namely the CH3OO radical addition to the carbon atom of H2COO leading to the formation of the CH3OOCH2OO radical adduct. Both pathways begin with the formation of a pre-reactive complex with binding energies of 5.39 and 5.13 kcal mol(-1). The corresponding transition states are predicted to lie 2.64 and 0.25 kcal mol(-1), respectively, below the energy of the reactants and the rate constant of the global reaction is calculated to be 3.74 × 10(-12) cm(3) molecules(-1) s(-1) at 298 K. Since the CH3OOCH2OO radical adduct is formed with an internal energy excess of about 45 kcal mol(-1), it can decompose unimolecularly into formaldehyde and the CH2(O)OOCH radical. This unimolecular decomposition involves an intramolecular H-atom transfer followed by the decomposition of the CH2OOCH2OOH radical intermediate. Kinetic calculations based on the collision-reaction master equation employing the MultiWell Program Suite reveal that the CH3OOCH2OO radical adduct is stabilized in 86.9%, whereas 13.10% of the reaction corresponds to the formation of H2CO plus the CH2(O)OOH radical. It is concluded that the methyl peroxy radical addition to substituted carbonyl oxides might be the source of low volatility oligomers observed in secondary organic aerosols in chamber studies.

The gas-phase reaction of methane sulfonic acid with the hydroxyl radical without and with water vapor.

The gas phase reaction between methane sulfonic acid (CH3SO3H; MSA) and the hydroxyl radical (HO), without and with a water molecule, was investigated with DFT-B3LYP and CCSD(T)-F12 methods. For the bare reaction we have found two reaction mechanisms, involving proton coupled electron transfer and hydrogen atom transfer processes that produce CH3SO3 and H2O. We also found a third reaction mechanism involving the double proton transfer process, where the products and reactants are identical. The computed rate constant for the oxidation process is 8.3 × 10(-15) cm(3) s(-1) molecule(-1). CH3SO3H forms two very stable complexes with water with computed binding energies of about 10 kcal mol(-1). The presence of a single water molecule makes the reaction between CH3SO3H and HO much more complex, introducing a new reaction that consists in the interchange of H2O between HO and CH3SO3H. Our kinetic calculations show that 99.5% of the reaction involves this interchange of the water molecule and, consequently, water vapor does not play any role in the oxidation reaction of methane sulfonic acid by the hydroxyl radical.

Gas phase reaction of nitric acid with hydroxyl radical without and with water. A theoretical investigation.

The gas phase reaction between nitric acid and hydroxyl radical, without and with a single water molecule, has been investigated theoretically using the DFT-B3LYP, MP2, QCISD, and CCSD(T) theoretical approaches with the 6-311+G(2df,2p) and aug-cc-pVTZ basis sets. The reaction without water begins with the formation of a prereactive hydrogen-bonded complex and has several elementary reactions processes. They include proton coupled electron transfer, hydrogen atom transfer, and proton transfer mechanisms, and our kinetic study shows a quite good agreement of the behavior of the rate constant with respect to the temperature and to the pressure with the experimental results from the literature. The addition of a single water molecule results in a much more complex potential energy surface although the different elementary reactions found have the same electronic features that the naked reaction. Two transition states are stabilized by the effect of a hydrogen bond interaction originated by the water molecule, and in the prereactive hydrogen bond region there is a geometrical rearrangement necessary to prepare the HO and HNO(3) moieties to react to each other. This step contributes the reaction to be slower than the reaction without water and explains the experimental finding, pointing out that there is no dependence for the HNO(3) + HO reaction on water vapor.

Different catalytic effects of a single water molecule: the gas-phase reaction of formic acid with hydroxyl radical in water vapor.

The effect of a single water molecule on the reaction mechanism of the gas-phase reaction between formic acid and the hydroxyl radical was investigated with high-level quantum mechanical calculations using DFT-B3LYP, MP2 and CCSD(T) theoretical approaches in concert with the 6-311+G(2df,2p) and aug-cc-pVTZ basis sets. The reaction between HCOOH and HO has a very complex mechanism involving a proton-coupled electron transfer process (pcet), two hydrogen-atom transfer reactions (hat) and a double proton transfer process (dpt). The hydroxyl radical predominantly abstracts the acidic hydrogen of formic acid through a pcet mechanism. A single water molecule affects each one of these reaction mechanisms in different ways, depending on the way the water interacts. Very interesting is also the fact that our calculations predict that the participation of a single water molecule results in the abstraction of the formyl hydrogen of formic acid through a hydrogen atom transfer process (hat).

The gas-phase reaction between O3 and HO radical: a theoretical study.

We report a theoretical study on the reaction of ozone with hydroxyl radical, which is important in the chemistry of the atmosphere and in particular participates in stratospheric ozone destruction. The reaction is a complex process that involves, in the first stage, a pre-reactive hydrogen-bonded complex (C1), which is formed previous to two transition states (TS1 and TS2) involving the addition of the hydroxyl radical to ozone, and leads to the formation of HO4 polyoxide radical before the release of the products HO2 and O2. The reaction is computed to be exothermic by 42.72 kcal mol(-1), which compares quite well with the experimental estimate, and the energy barriers of TS1 and TS2 with respect to C1 are computed to be 1.80 and 2.26 kcal mol(-1) at 0 K. A kinetic study based on the variational transition state theory (VTST) predicts a rate constant, at 298 K, of 7.37 x 10(-14) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1), compared to the experimentally recommended value of 7.25 x 10(-14) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1).

The gas-phase hydrogen-bonded complex between ozone and hydroperoxyl radical. A theoretical study.

We report a theoretical study on the gas-phase hydrogen-bonded complexes formed between ozone and hydroperoxyl radical, which are of interest in atmospheric chemistry. We have employed CASSCF, CASPT2, QCISD, and CCSD(T) theoretical approaches employing 6-311+G(2df,2p) and aug-cc-pVTZ basis sets, and we have found three complexes whose stabilities are computed to be 2.02, 1.19, and 1.34 kcal/mol, respectively, at 0 K. In addition, we have also found three transition states connecting these complexes that lie below the energy of the separate reactants. To help for possible experimental identification of these hydrogen-bonded complexes, we report also the computed harmonic vibrational frequencies along with the frequency shifts of the complexes, relative to the monomers, and the computed rotational constants.

New insight into the gas-phase bimolecular self-reaction of the HOO radical.

The singlet and triplet potential energy surfaces (PESs) for the gas-phase bimolecular self-reaction of HOO*, a key reaction in atmospheric environments, have been investigated by means of quantum-mechanical electronic structure methods (CASSCF and CASPT2). All the reaction pathways on both PESs consist of a first step involving the barrierless formation of a prereactive doubly hydrogen-bonded complex, which is a diradical species lying about 8 kcal/mol below the energy of the reactants at 0 K. The lowest energy reaction pathway on both PESs is the degenerate double hydrogen exchange between the HOO* moieties of the prereactive complex via a double proton transfer mechanism involving an energy barrier of only 1.1 kcal/mol for the singlet and 3.3 kcal/mol for the triplet at 0 K. The single H-atom transfer between the two HOO* moieties of the prereactive complex (yielding HOOH + O2) through a pathway keeping a planar arrangement of the six atoms involves a conical intersection between either two singlet or two triplet states of A' and A" symmetries. Thus, the lowest energy reaction pathway occurs via a nonplanar cisoid transition structure with an energy barrier of 5.8 kcal/mol for the triplet and 17.5 kcal/mol for the singlet at 0 K. The simple addition between the terminal oxygen atoms of the two HOO* moieties of the prereactive complex, leading to the straight chain H2O4 intermediate on the singlet PES, involves an energy barrier of 7.3 kcal/mol at 0 K. Because the decomposition of such an intermediate into HOOH + O2 entails an energy barrier of 45.2 kcal/mol at 0 K, it is concluded that the single H-atom transfer on the triplet PES is the dominant pathway leading to HOOH + O2. Finally, the strong negative temperature dependence of the rate constant observed for this reaction is attributed to the reversible formation of the prereactive complex in the entrance channel rather than to a short-lived tetraoxide intermediate.

Theoretical characterization of the gas-phase O(3)HO hydrogen-bonded complex.

We report a theoretical study on two gas-phase hydrogen-bonded complexes formed between ozone and hydroxyl radical that have relevance to atmospheric chemistry. This study was carried out by using CASSCF, CASPT2, QCISD, and CCSD(T) theoretical approaches in conjunction with the 6-311+G(2df,2p) and aug-cc-pVTZ basis sets. Both complexes have a planar structure and differ from each other in the orientation of the electronic density of the unpaired electron associated with the HO radical moiety. Our calculations predict their stabilities to be 0.87 and 0.67 kcal mol(-1), respectively, at 0 K and show the importance of anharmonic effects in computing the red shift of the HO stretch originating from the hydrogen-bonding interaction. We also report two transition states involving the movement of the HO moiety on the potential energy surfaces of these hydrogen-bonded complexes.

Mechanistic study of the CH(3)O(2)(*) + HO(2)(*) --> CH(3)O(2)H + O(2) reaction in the gas phase. computational evidence for the formation of a hydrogen-bonded diradical complex.

In an attempt to understand the mechanism of the reaction of alkylperoxy radicals with hydroperoxy radical, a key reaction in both atmospheric and combustion chemistry, the singlet and triplet potential energy surfaces (PESs) for the gas-phase reaction between CH(3)O(2)(*) and HO(2)(*) leading to the formation of CH(3)OOH and O(2) have been investigated by means of quantum-mechanical electronic structure methods (CASSCF and CASPT2). In addition, standard transition state theory calculations have been carried out with the main purpose of a qualitative description of the strong negative temperature dependence observed for this reaction. All the pathways on both the singlet and triplet PESs consist of a reversible first step involving the barrierless formation of a hydrogen-bonded pre-reactive complex, followed by the irreversible formation of products. This complex is a diradical species where the two unpaired electrons are not used for bonding and is lying about 5 kcal/mol below the energy of the reactants at 0 K. The lowest energy reaction pathway occurs on the triplet PES and involves the direct H-atom transfer from HO(2) to CH(3)O(2) in the diradical complex through a transition structure lying 3.8 kcal/mol below the energy of the reactants at 0 K. Contradicting the currently accepted interpretation of the reaction mechanism, the observed strong negative temperature dependence of the rate constant is due to the formation of the hydrogen-bonded diradical complex rather than a short-lived tetraoxide intermediate CH(3)OOOOH.

Hydrogen transfer between sulfuric acid and hydroxyl radical in the gas phase: competition among hydrogen atom transfer, proton-coupled electron-transfer, and double proton transfer.

In an attempt to assess the potential role of the hydroxyl radical in the atmospheric degradation of sulfuric acid, the hydrogen transfer between H2SO4 and HO* in the gas phase has been investigated by means of DFT and quantum-mechanical electronic-structure calculations, as well as classical transition state theory computations. The first step of the H2SO4 + HO* reaction is the barrierless formation of a prereactive hydrogen-bonded complex (Cr1) lying 8.1 kcal mol(-1) below the sum of the (298 K) enthalpies of the reactants. After forming Cr1, a single hydrogen transfer from H2SO4 to HO* and a degenerate double hydrogen-exchange between H2SO4 and HO* may occur. The single hydrogen transfer, yielding HSO4* and H2O, can take place through three different transition structures, the two lowest energy ones (TS1 and TS2) corresponding to a proton-coupled electron-transfer mechanism, whereas the higher energy one (TS3) is associated with a hydrogen atom transfer mechanism. The double hydrogen-exchange, affording products identical to reactants, takes place through a transition structure (TS4) involving a double proton-transfer mechanism and is predicted to be the dominant pathway. A rate constant of 1.50 x 10(-14) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1) at 298 K is obtained for the overall reaction H2SO4 + HO*. The single hydrogen transfer through TS1, TS2, and TS3 contributes to the overall rate constant at 298 K with a 43.4%. It is concluded that the single hydrogen transfer from H2SO4 to HO* yielding HSO4* and H2O might well be a significant sink for gaseous sulfuric acid in the atmosphere.

Mechanism for the gas-phase reaction between formaldehyde and hydroperoxyl radical. A theoretical study.

We present a high-level theoretical study on the gas-phase reaction between formaldehyde and hydroperoxyl radical carried out using the DFT-B3LYP, QCISD, and CCSD(T) theoretical approaches in connection with the 6-311+G(d,p), 6-311+G(2df,2p), and aug-cc-pVTZ basis sets. The most favorable reaction path begins with the formation of a pre-reactive complex and produces the peroxy radical CH(2)(OO)OH in a process that is computed to be exothermic by 16.8 kcal/mol. This reaction involves a process in which the oxygen terminal of the HO(2) moiety adds to the carbon of formaldehyde, and, simultaneously, the hydrogen of the hydroperoxyl group is transferred to the oxygen of the carbonyl in a proton-coupled electron-transfer mechanism. Our calculations show that this transition state lies below the sum of the energy of the reactants, and we computed a rate constant at 300 K of 9.29 x 10(-14) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1), which is in good agreement with the experimental results. Also of interest in combustion chemistry, we studied the hydrogen abstraction process by HO(2), the result of which is the formation of HCO + H(2)O(2). We found two reaction paths with activation enthalpies close to 12 kcal/mol. For this process, we computed a rate constant of 1.48 x 10(-16) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1) at 700 K, which also agrees quite well with experimental results.

Complex mechanism of the gas phase reaction between formic acid and hydroxyl radical. Proton coupled electron transfer versus radical hydrogen abstraction mechanisms.

The gas phase reaction between formic acid and hydroxyl radical has been investigated with high level quantum mechanical calculations using DFT-B3LYP, MP2, CASSCF, QCISD, and CCSD(T) theoretical approaches in connection with the 6-311+G(2df,2p) and aug-cc-pVTZ basis sets. The reaction has a very complex mechanism involving several elementary processes, which begin with the formation of a reactant complex before the hydrogen abstraction by hydroxyl radical. The results obtained in this investigation explain the unexpected experimental fact that hydroxyl radical extracts predominantly the acidic hydrogen of formic acid. This is due to a mechanism involving a proton coupled electron-transfer process. The calculations show also that the abstraction of formyl hydrogen has an increased contribution at higher temperatures, which is due to a conventional hydrogen abstraction radical type mechanism. The overall rate constant computed at 298 K is 6.24 x 10(-13) cm3 molecules(-1) s(-1), and compares quite well with the range from 3.2 +/- 1 to 4.9 +/- 1.2 x 10(-13) cm3 molecules(-1) s(-1), reported experimentally.

The gas-phase hydrogen bond complexes between formic acid with hydroxyl radical: a theoretical study.

We report a theoretical study on seven radical hydrogen bond complexes between syn-HCOOH and OH and eight radical hydrogen bond complexes between anti-HCOOH and OH, that have been carried out by using the B3LYP, MP2, QCISD, and CCSD(T) theoretical approaches with the 6-311 + G(2df,2p) basis set. In all cases, the bonding features were analysed using the atoms in molecules (AIM) theory by Bader and the natural bond orbital (NBO) partition scheme by Weinhold et al. We have found twelve complexes having a single hydrogen bond and three complexes presenting a cyclic structure with multiple bonds, pointing out the existence of a cooperative effect. One of them presents a bound O...O interaction producing a stabilisation effect. The stability of these complexes has been calculated to be in the -0.81 and -5.96 kcal mol-1 range and their possible implication in the HCOOH plus OH reaction is also discussed. Finally, we also report the computed harmonic vibrational frequencies of the two O-H stretching modes and the HOC out-of-plane wagging mode, along with the frequency red-shifts originated by the complex formation and the corresponding computed intensity ratio relative to the monomers.