Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Plus Lateral Extra-articular Tenodesis Has a Similar Return-to-Sport Rate to Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Alone but a Lower Failure Rate.

PURPOSE: To determine whether the addition of lateral extra-articular tenodesis (LET) to anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) would improve return-to-sport (RTS) rates in young, active patients who play high-risk sports. METHODS: This multicenter randomized controlled trial compared standard hamstring tendon ACLR with combined ACLR and LET using a strip of the iliotibial band (modified Lemaire technique). Patients aged 25 years or younger with an anterior cruciate ligament-deficient knee were included. Patients also had to meet 2 of the following criteria: (1) pivot-shift grade 2 or greater, (2) participation in a high-risk or pivoting sport, and (3) generalized ligamentous laxity. Time to return and level of RTS were determined via administration of a questionnaire at 24 months postoperatively. RESULTS: We randomized 618 patients in this study, 553 of whom played high-risk sports preoperatively. The proportion of patients who did not RTS was similar between the ACLR (11%) and ACLR-LET (14%) groups; however, the graft rupture rate was significantly different (11.2% in ACLR group vs 4.1% in ACLR-LET group, P = .004). The most cited reason for no RTS was lack of confidence and/or fear of reinjury. A stable knee was associated with nearly 2 times greater odds of returning to a high-level high-risk sport postoperatively (odds ratio, 1.92; 95% confidence interval, 1.11-3.35; P = .02). There were no significant differences in patient-reported functional outcomes or hop test results between groups (P > .05). Patients who returned to high-risk sports had better hamstring symmetry than those who did not RTS (P = .001). CONCLUSIONS: At 24 months postoperatively, patients who underwent ACLR plus LET had a similar RTS rate to those who underwent ACLR alone. Although the subgroup analysis did not show a statistically significant increase in RTS with the addition of LET, on returning, the addition of LET kept subjects playing longer by reducing graft failure rates. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level I, randomized controlled trial.

Lateral Extra-articular Tenodesis Reduces Failure of Hamstring Tendon Autograft Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: 2-Year Outcomes From the STABILITY Study Randomized Clinical Trial.

BACKGROUND: Persistent anterolateral rotatory laxity after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction (ACLR) has been correlated with poor clinical outcomes and graft failure. HYPOTHESIS: We hypothesized that a single-bundle, hamstring ACLR in combination with a lateral extra-articular tenodesis (LET) would reduce the risk of ACLR failure in young, active individuals. STUDY DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial; Level of evidence, 1. METHODS: This is a multicenter, prospective, randomized clinical trial comparing a single-bundle, hamstring tendon ACLR with or without LET performed using a strip of iliotibial band. Patients 25 years or younger with an ACL-deficient knee were included and also had to meet at least 2 of the following 3 criteria: (1) grade 2 pivot shift or greater, (2) a desire to return to high-risk/pivoting sports, (3) and generalized ligamentous laxity (GLL). The primary outcome was ACLR clinical failure, a composite measure of rotatory laxity or a graft rupture. Secondary outcome measures included the P4 pain scale, Marx Activity Rating Scale, Knee injury Osteoarthritis and Outcome Score (KOOS), International Knee Documentation Committee score, and ACL Quality of Life Questionnaire. Patients were reviewed at 3, 6, 12, and 24 months postoperatively. RESULTS: A total of 618 patients (297 males; 48%) with a mean age of 18.9 years (range, 14-25 years) were randomized. A total of 436 (87.9%) patients presented preoperatively with high-grade rotatory laxity (grade 2 pivot shift or greater), and 215 (42.1%) were diagnosed as having GLL. There were 18 patients lost to follow-up and 11 who withdrew (~5%). In the ACLR group, 120/298 (40%) patients sustained the primary outcome of clinical failure, compared with 72/291 (25%) in the ACLR+LET group (relative risk reduction [RRR], 0.38; 95% CI, 0.21-0.52; P < .0001). A total of 45 patients experienced graft rupture, 34/298 (11%) in the ACLR group compared with 11/291 (4%) in the ACL+LET group (RRR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.36-0.83; P < .001). The number needed to treat with LET to prevent 1 patient from graft rupture was 14.3 over the first 2 postoperative years. At 3 months, patients in the ACLR group had less pain as measured by the P4 (P = .003) and KOOS (P = .007), with KOOS pain persisting in favor of the ACLR group to 6 months (P = .02). No clinically important differences in patient-reported outcome measures were found between groups at other time points. The level of sports activity was similar between groups at 2 years after surgery, as measured by the Marx Activity Rating Scale (P = .11). CONCLUSION: The addition of LET to a single-bundle hamstring tendon autograft ACLR in young patients at high risk of failure results in a statistically significant, clinically relevant reduction in graft rupture and persistent rotatory laxity at 2 years after surgery. REGISTRATION: NCT02018354 ( ClinicalTrials.gov identifier).

Virtual Reality Compared with Bench-Top Simulation in the Acquisition of Arthroscopic Skill: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Work-hour restrictions as set forth by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) and other governing bodies have forced training programs to seek out new learning tools to accelerate acquisition of both medical skills and knowledge. As a result, competency-based training has become an important part of residency training. The purpose of this study was to directly compare arthroscopic skill acquisition in both high-fidelity and low-fidelity simulator models and to assess skill transfer from either modality to a cadaveric specimen, simulating intraoperative conditions. METHODS: Forty surgical novices (pre-clerkship-level medical students) voluntarily participated in this trial. Baseline demographic data, as well as data on arthroscopic knowledge and skill, were collected prior to training. Subjects were randomized to 5-week independent training sessions on a high-fidelity virtual reality arthroscopic simulator or on a bench-top arthroscopic setup, or to an untrained control group. Post-training, subjects were asked to perform a diagnostic arthroscopy on both simulators and in a simulated intraoperative environment on a cadaveric knee. A more difficult surprise task was also incorporated to evaluate skill transfer. Subjects were evaluated using the Global Rating Scale (GRS), the 14-point arthroscopic checklist, and a timer to determine procedural efficiency (time per task). Secondary outcomes focused on objective measures of virtual reality simulator motion analysis. RESULTS: Trainees on both simulators demonstrated a significant improvement (p < 0.05) in arthroscopic skills compared with baseline scores and untrained controls, both in and ex vivo. The virtual reality simulation group consistently outperformed the bench-top model group in the diagnostic arthroscopy crossover tests and in the simulated cadaveric setup. Furthermore, the virtual reality group demonstrated superior skill transfer in the surprise skill transfer task. CONCLUSIONS: Both high-fidelity and low-fidelity simulation trainings were effective in arthroscopic skill acquisition. High-fidelity virtual reality simulation was superior to bench-top simulation in the acquisition of arthroscopic skills, both in the laboratory and in vivo. Further clinical investigation is needed to interpret the importance of these results.

Anatomical Evaluation of the Proximity of Neurovascular Structures During Arthroscopically Assisted Acromioclavicular Joint Reconstruction: A Cadaveric Pilot Study.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the safety of an arthroscopic technique for acromioclavicular joint (ACJ) reconstruction by investigating its proximity to important neurovascular structures. METHODS: Six shoulders from 4 cadaveric specimens were used for ACJ reconstruction in this study. The procedure consists of performing an arthroscopic acromioclavicular (AC) reduction with a double button construct, followed by coracoclavicular ligament reconstruction without drilling clavicular tunnels. Shoulders were subsequently dissected in order to identify and measure distances to adjacent neurovascular structures. RESULTS: The suprascapular artery and nerve were the closest neurovascular structures to implanted materials. The mean distances were 8.2 (standard deviation [SD] = 3.6) mm to the suprascapular nerve and 5.6 (SD = 4.2) mm to the suprascapular artery. The mean distance of the suprascapular nerve from implants was found to be greater than 5 mm (P = .040), while the distance to the suprascapular artery was not (P > .5). Neither difference was statistically significant (P = .80 for artery; P = .08 for nerve). CONCLUSIONS: Mini-open, arthroscopically assisted ACJ reconstruction safely avoids the surrounding nerves, with no observed damage to any neurovascular structures including the suprascapular nerve and artery, and may be a viable alternative to open techniques. However, surgeons must remain cognizant of possible close proximity to the suprascapular artery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This study represents an evaluation of the safety and feasibility of a minimally invasive ACJ reconstruction as it relates to the proximity of neurovascular structures.

Image-guided techniques improve accuracy of mosaic arthroplasty.

PURPOSE: Mosaic arthroplasty is a surgical technique in which a set of cylindrical osteochondral grafts is transplanted from non-load-bearing areas of the joint to repair damaged articular cartilage. Incongruity between the graft surface and the adjacent cartilage at the repair site results in inferior clinical outcomes. This paper compares technical outcome using three mosaic arthroplasty techniques (conventional, optoelectronic, and patient-specific template) on femur models. METHODS: Three distinct sets of femur models with defects were created. Preoperatively, the harvest and delivery sites were planned using custom software. Five orthopedic surgeons were recruited; each surgeon performed each of the three surgical techniques on each of the three bone models with defect. During the optoelectronic trials, the instrument position and orientation were tracked and superimposed onto the surgical plan. For the patient-specific template trials, plastic templates were manufactured to fit over the defects with cylindrical holes to guide the surgical tools according to the plan. Postoperatively, the femur models were computer tomography and laser scanned. Several measures were made to compare surgical techniques: operative time; surface congruency; defect coverage; graft surface area that is proud or recessed; air volume below the grafts; and distance and angle of the grafts from the surgical plan. RESULTS: The patient-specific template and optoelectronic techniques resulted in improved surface congruency, defect surface coverage, and below-graft air gap volume in comparison with the conventional technique. However, the conventional technique had a shorter operative time. CONCLUSIONS: Image-guided techniques can improve the accuracy of mosaic arthroplasty, which could result in better clinical outcomes.

Global Rating Scales and Motion Analysis Are Valid Proficiency Metrics in Virtual and Benchtop Knee Arthroscopy Simulators.

BACKGROUND: Work-hour restrictions and fatigue management strategies in surgical training programs continue to evolve in an effort to improve the learning environment and promote safer patient care. In response, training programs must reevaluate how various teaching modalities such as simulation can augment the development of surgical competence in trainees. For surgical simulators to be most useful, it is important to determine whether surgical proficiency can be reliably differentiated using them. To our knowledge, performance on both virtual and benchtop arthroscopy simulators has not been concurrently assessed in the same subjects. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: (1) Do global rating scales and procedure time differentiate arthroscopic expertise in virtual and benchtop knee models? (2) Can commercially available built-in motion analysis metrics differentiate arthroscopic expertise? (3) How well are performance measures on virtual and benchtop simulators correlated? (4) Are these metrics sensitive enough to differentiate by year of training? METHODS: A cross-sectional study of 19 subjects (four medical students, 12 residents, and three staff) were recruited and divided into 11 novice arthroscopists (student to Postgraduate Year [PGY] 3) and eight proficient arthroscopists (PGY 4 to staff) who completed a diagnostic arthroscopy and loose-body retrieval in both virtual and benchtop knee models. Global rating scales (GRS), procedure times, and motion analysis metrics were used to evaluate performance. RESULTS: The proficient group scored higher on virtual (14 ± 6 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 10-18] versus 36 ± 5 [95% CI, 32-40], p < 0.001) and benchtop (16 ± 8 [95% CI, 11-21] versus 36 ± 5 [95% CI, 31-40], p < 0.001) GRS scales. The proficient subjects completed nearly all tasks faster than novice subjects, including the virtual scope (579 ±169 [95% CI, 466-692] versus 358 ± 178 [95% CI, 210-507] seconds, p = 0.02) and benchtop knee scope + probe (480 ± 160 [95% CI, 373-588] versus 277 ± 64 [95% CI, 224-330] seconds, p = 0.002). The built-in motion analysis metrics also distinguished novices from proficient arthroscopists using the self-generated virtual loose body retrieval task scores (4 ± 1 [95% CI, 3-5] versus 6 ± 1 [95% CI, 5-7], p = 0.001). GRS scores between virtual and benchtop models were very strongly correlated (ρ = 0.93, p < 0.001). There was strong correlation between year of training and virtual GRS (ρ = 0.8, p < 0.001) and benchtop GRS (ρ = 0.87, p < 0.001) scores. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate performance on both virtual and benchtop knee simulators. We have shown that subjective GRS scores and objective motion analysis metrics and procedure time are valid measures to distinguish arthroscopic skill on both virtual and benchtop modalities. Performance on both modalities is well correlated. We believe that training on artificial models allows acquisition of skills in a safe environment. Future work should compare different modalities in the efficiency of skill acquisition, retention, and transferability to the operating room.

Image-Guided Techniques Improve the Short-Term Outcome of Autologous Osteochondral Cartilage Repair Surgeries: An Animal Trial.

OBJECTIVE: Autologous osteochondral cartilage repair is a valuable reconstruction option for cartilage defects, but the accuracy to harvest and deliver osteochondral grafts remains problematic. We investigated whether image-guided methods (optically guided and template guided) can improve the outcome of these procedures. DESIGN: Fifteen sheep were operated to create traumatic chondral injuries in each knee. After 4 months, the chondral defect in one knee was repaired using (a) conventional approach, (b) optically guided method, or (c) template-guided method. For both image-guided groups, harvest and delivery sites were preoperatively planned using custom-made software. During optically guided surgery, instrument position and orientation were tracked and superimposed onto the surgical plan. For the template-guided group, plastic templates were manufactured to allow an exact fit between template and the joint anatomy. Cylindrical holes within the template guided surgical tools according to the plan. Three months postsurgery, both knees were harvested and computed tomography scans were used to compare the reconstructed versus the native pre-injury joint surfaces. For each repaired defect, macroscopic (International Cartilage Repair Society [ICRS]) and histological repair (ICRS II) scores were assessed. RESULTS: Three months after repair surgery, both image-guided surgical approaches resulted in significantly better histology scores compared with the conventional approach (improvement by 55%, P < 0.02). Interestingly, there were no significant differences found in cartilage surface reconstruction and macroscopic scores between the image-guided and the conventional surgeries.

Computer-assisted mosaic arthroplasty using patient-specific instrument guides.

PURPOSE: Success of mosaic arthroplasty requires that the transplanted plugs be positioned to reconstruct the curvature and height of the original articular surface. This case report demonstrates how to achieve correct plug positioning using patient-specific instrument guides manufactured on a 3D printer. METHODS: Using a 3D computer model of bone and cartilage, the harvesting of plugs and their placement at the defect site was planned on the computer. Instrument guides were manufactured in thermoplastic on a 3D printer; the bottom surface of the guides fit to the contour of the knee and the top surface contained holes to precisely position the surgical instruments. The instrument guides were used on a young female patient to repair a large articular cartilage defect in the left knee. RESULTS: The patient showed an increased range of motion in the knee and also a decrease in pain and discomfort at her 2-year follow-up. A CT arthrogram at 2 years postoperative showed a smooth and appropriate contour of the reconstructed cartilage over the defect. CONCLUSIONS: Image-based preoperative planning and the use of patient-specific instrument guides can yield a good patient outcome without requiring optically tracked intraoperative guidance.

Augmented virtuality for arthroscopic knee surgery.

This paper describes a computer system to visualize the location and alignment of an arthroscope using augmented virtuality. A 3D computer model of the patient's joint (from CT) is shown, along with a model of the tracked arthroscopic probe and the projection of the camera image onto the virtual joint. A user study, using plastic bones instead of live patients, was made to determine the effectiveness of this navigated display; the study showed that the navigated display improves target localization in novice residents.

The effect of suture anchor design and orientation on suture abrasion: An in vitro study.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effects of suture anchor design and orientation on suture abrasion in a cyclic model. TYPE OF STUDY: In vitro. METHODS: Biomechanical studies have shown suture breakage to be a predominant mode of failure in a suture anchor repair construct. It is possible that suture abrasion during knot tying or in vivo cyclic loading may contribute to early failure. This study specifically investigates suture abrasion caused by 17 commonly used suture anchors and demonstrates the effects of suture anchor angulation and rotation on suture abrasion. To eliminate target tissue as a source of failure, all anchors were implanted into a solid block of sawbones material and tested with No. 2 Ethibond Excel sutures (Ethicon, Somerville, NJ). The testing model focused on 3 variables: suture anchor type, suture pull angle (SA) and angle of anchor rotation (RA). Abrasion testing was then performed on a servohydraulic materials testing system by continually cycling the suture back and forth through each anchor with an excursion of 4 cm at a rate of 0.5 Hz under a load of 10 N until suture failure occurred. RESULTS: Sutures performed significantly better when cycled in line with the anchor at 0 degrees SA with 0 degrees RA than they did at 45 degrees SA with 0 degrees RA or 45 degrees SA with 90 degrees RA. We found no significant difference between anchors tested at 45 degrees SA with 0 degrees RA and 45 degrees SA with 90 degrees RA. For tests performed using metallic suture anchors, all constructs failed by fraying of the suture. Constructs using biopolymer anchors and nonabsorbable polymeric anchors experienced a mixture of suture and anchor eyelet failures. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to the statistically significant detrimental effects of suture anchor angulation and rotation on suture abrasion, suture anchor eyelet design may also influence suture abrasion. Surgeons should be aware of the effects of anchor angulation, suture position in the eyelet, and design and composition of the eyelet to maximize the durability of the construct.

Meniscal injury: II. Management.

Meniscal repair is a viable alternative to resection in many clinical situations. Repair techniques traditionally have utilized a variety of suture methods, including inside-out and outside-in techniques. Bioabsorbable implants permit all-inside arthroscopic repairs. The success of meniscal repair depends on appropriate meniscal bed preparation and surgical technique and is also influenced by biologic factors such as tear rim width and associated ligamentous injury. Successful repair in >80% of cases has been reported in conjunction with anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Success rates are lower for isolated repairs. Complications related to repair include neurologic injury, postoperative loss of motion, recurrence of the tear, and infection. Meniscal allograft transplantation may provide a treatment option when meniscus salvage is not possible or when a previous total meniscectomy has been done.