Dual users' perceptions of the addictive properties of cigarettes versus E-cigarettes.

INTRODUCTION: Electronic cigarettes ("e-cigarettes") are commonly promoted as a less-harmful alternative to combustible cigarettes, yet many individuals concurrently use both products ("dual users"). Little is known about the extent to which dual users' perceptions of the addictive properties of these products differ, or to what extent there are differences in the factors that elicit craving for each product. METHODS: An online survey evaluated beliefs about the addictive properties of cigarettes vs e-cigarettes and the situational and affective precipitants of product craving, on a scale from 1 to 10, in a sample of Canadian adults that reported past-month use of combustible and e-cigarettes (N = 175; 79 female). RESULTS: Participants rated cigarettes as more addictive than e-cigarettes, and on average reported higher levels of dependence on combustible cigarettes. While the addictive properties of both combustible and e-cigarettes were largely attributed to nicotine, non-nicotine factors (e.g. flavouring, other non-nicotine ingredients) were believed to make a relatively stronger contribution to the addictive properties of e-cigarettes, particularly among women. Participants reported greater increases in craving for combustible cigarettes in response to negative affective states and situational factors, and these effects were strongest among participants that displayed greater dependence on combustible tobacco relative to e-cigarettes. CONCLUSIONS: Dual users perceived cigarettes to be more addictive than e-cigarettes and attributed the addictive properties of each product to different factors. Further, cravings for combustible cigarettes were more strongly linked to certain negative affective states and situational factors relative to e-cigarettes. Findings suggest that there may be limited substitutability between combustible and e-cigarettes.

Different drugs come with different motives: Examining motives for substance use among people who engage in polysubstance use undergoing methadone maintenance therapy (MMT).

BACKGROUND: Substance use motives (i.e., reasons for using a substance) are thought to be the most proximal variable leading to substance use. These motives have been described by various typologies, the most well known being the four-factor drinking motives model which separates motives into enhancement, social, coping, and conformity (Cooper, 1994). Although extensively studied in adult community samples, motives for use have less commonly been investigated among populations at a later stage of addiction, where polysubstance use is more common. Moreover, because the motives literature has largely focused on drinking motives, it is not clear whether existing findings can also be applied to other substances (Cooper et al., 2016). METHODS: Using Zero-inflated beta Bayesian linear mixed modeling, we investigated the stability of seven distinct substance use motives (enhancement, social, expansion, coping with anxiety, coping with depression, coping with withdrawal, and conformity) across six different drug categories (tobacco, alcohol, cannabis, opioids, stimulants, and tranquilisers) to determine the extent to which drug class can influence motive endorsement. One-hundred-and-thirty-eight methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) clients (F = 34.1%; M = 65.9%; age = 40.18 years) completed a novel short-form polysubstance motives questionnaire. RESULTS: External motives (i.e., conformity and social motives) were the most stable across drug categories, while all internal motives (i.e., enhancement, expansion, and all three coping motives) demonstrated varying levels of inter-drug variability. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have important implications for prevention and intervention strategies among people who engage in polysubstance use, highlighting the importance of both universal and substance-specific programming.

The relative impact of acute nicotine and tobacco administration on craving, withdrawal, and cigarette self-administration in dependent and nondependent smokers.

Negative reinforcement mechanisms, wherein individuals smoke at regular intervals to ameliorate craving and withdrawal, are integral to persistent smoking. This is consistent with the behavior of dependent smokers but does not fully account for the behavior of intermittent smokers, who do not smoke enough to maintain steady nicotine levels. This study examined the independent and combined impacts of nicotine and tobacco consumption on cigarette craving, withdrawal, and subsequent smoking behavior in 18 nondependent light and intermittent smokers (LITS) and 23 daily, dependent smokers (DDS). Participants administered conventional nicotine-containing cigarettes (NC; 18.9 mg nicotine; 1.41 mg deliverable), reduced nicotine content cigarettes (RNC; 0.4 mg nicotine, 0.05 mg deliverable), nicotine inhalers (NI; 10 mg nicotine, 4 mg deliverable), or nicotine-free inhalers (NFI) across 4 sessions following overnight abstinence. Participants rated craving and withdrawal before and after product administration, then completed a cigarette self-administration task. For cigarette self-administration, neither smoking status nor product affected latency to initiate smoking; however, LITS were more likely to abstain from smoking and administered fewer puffs than DDS. Across participants, pharmacologically active products (NC, RNC, NI) were associated with fewer cigarette puffs than the NFI. For subjective measures, only cigarettes (NC, RNC) reduced craving in both LITS and DDS. NC, RNC, and NI reduced withdrawal in DDS, while withdrawal remained at floor levels across time points among LITS. While subjective ratings and smoking behavior were largely comparable across LITS and DDS, differing patterns of withdrawal symptoms suggest that dependent smoking is motivated by negative reinforcement while nondependent smoking is not. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Non-pharmacological Considerations in Human Research of Nicotine and Tobacco Effects: A Review.

Human research of nicotine and tobacco effects demonstrates that non-pharmacological factors may systematically affect responses to administered substances and inert placebos. Failure to measure or manipulate these factors may compromise study reliability and validity. This is especially relevant for double-blind placebo-controlled research of nicotine, tobacco, and related substances. In this article, we review laboratory-based human research of the impact of non-pharmacological factors on responses to tobacco and nicotine administration. Results suggest that varying beliefs about drug content and effects, perceptions about drug use opportunities, and intentions to cease drug use systematically alter subjective, behavioral, and physiological responses to nicotine, tobacco, and placebo administration. These non-pharmacological factors should be considered when designing and interpreting the findings of human research of nicotine and tobacco effects, particularly when a double-blind placebo-controlled design is used. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed, and we propose methodological strategies to enhance the reliability and validity of future research. IMPLICATIONS: Growing research demonstrates that non-pharmacological factors systematically alter responses to acute nicotine, tobacco, and placebo administration. Indeed, varying beliefs about nicotine and/or tobacco administration and effects, differing perceptions about nicotine and/or tobacco use opportunities, and inconsistent motivation to quit smoking have been found to exert important influences on subjective, physiological, and behavioral responses. These variables are infrequently measured or manipulated in nicotine and tobacco research, which compromises the validity of study findings. Incorporating methodological strategies to better account for these non-pharmacological factors has the potential to improve the quality of addiction research and treatment.

The impacts of actual and perceived nicotine administration on insula functional connectivity with the anterior cingulate cortex and nucleus accumbens.

BACKGROUND: Changes in resting state functional connectivity between the insula and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex as well as between the insula and nucleus accumbens have been linked to nicotine withdrawal and/or administration. However, because many of nicotine's effects in humans appear to depend, at least in part, on the belief that nicotine has been administered, the relative contribution of nicotine's pharmacological actions to such effects requires clarification. AIMS: The purpose of this study was to examine the impacts of perceived and actual nicotine administration on neural responses. METHODS: Twenty-six smokers were randomly assigned to receive either a nicotine inhaler (4 mg deliverable) or a nicotine-free inhaler across two sessions. Inhaler content instructions (told nicotine vs told nicotine-free) differed across sessions. Resting state functional connectivity between sub-regions of the insula and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and nucleus accumbens was measured using magnetic resonance imaging before and after inhaler administration. RESULTS: Both actual and perceived nicotine administration independently altered resting state functional connectivity between the anterior insula and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, with actual administration being associated with decreased resting state functional connectivity, and perceived administration with increased resting state functional connectivity. Actual nicotine administration also contralaterally reduced resting state functional connectivity between the anterior insula and nucleus accumbens, while reductions in resting state functional connectivity between the mid-insula and right nucleus accumbens were observed when nicotine was administered unexpectedly. Changes in resting state functional connectivity associated with actual or perceived nicotine administration were unrelated to changes in subjective withdrawal and craving. Changes in withdrawal and craving were however independently associated with resting state functional connectivity between the nucleus accumbens and insula. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlight the importance of considering non-pharmacological factors when examining drug mechanisms of action.

Testing the PPAR hypothesis of tobacco use disorder in humans: A randomized trial of the impact of gemfibrozil (a partial PPARα agonist) in smokers.

Previous pre-clinical studies demonstrated a promising role of alpha-type peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARα) agonists in decreasing nicotine self-administration and nicotine-seeking behavior in animals. Our goal was to investigate the potential of gemfibrozil, a PPARα agonist, on reducing tobacco smoking in humans. METHODS: This was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study evaluating the effects of gemfibrozil (1200 mg/day) on smoking in 27 treatment-seeking smokers. The study had two 2-week phases separated by a washout period of at least 1 week. In each phase and after 1 week on medication, participants underwent a lab session where cue reactivity and forced choice paradigms were conducted. Physiological responses and self-reported craving were monitored during the presentation of smoking and neutral cues. In addition, two types of cigarettes were used in the forced choice paradigms: the Nicotinized cigarettes (Nic) and the Denicotinized cigarettes (Denic). The goal of the forced choice was to calculate the percentage of choice of Nic cigarettes while taking gemfibrozil or placebo. The number of quit days was calculated during the two quit attempts weeks (one while taking gemfibrozil and one while taking placebo) of the study. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between gemfibrozil and placebo groups in the percentage of choice of Nic cigarettes, the cue-reactivity (both physiological and subjective measures), or in the number of days of abstinence. CONCLUSIONS: Although preclinical studies with PPAR α agonists showed promising results, this preliminary study did not demonstrate positive effect of gemfibrozil on tobacco use and cessation indices.

Quit Intentions Moderate Subjective and Physiological Responses to Acute Nicotine Replacement Therapy Administration in Dependent Smokers.

INTRODUCTION: This study assessed the impact of expectancy and administration components of acute nicotine inhaler use on craving, heart rate, and smoking behavior in smokers with varying intentions to quit. METHODS: 47 dependent smokers that differed in self-reported intention to quit (no intention to quit during the next month N = 26 vs. intention to initiate a quit attempt within 2 weeks N = 21) were randomly administered a 4 mg nicotine or nicotine-free inhaler across two sessions. Instructions regarding the inhaler's nicotine content (expect nicotine vs. expect nicotine-free; nicotine expectancy) and flavor (mint vs. citrus) varied across sessions. Craving and heart rate were assessed before and after inhaler administration (two-second inhalations every 10 seconds over 20 minutes). Next, participants were offered an opportunity to self-administer puffs of their preferred tobacco brand during an hour-long progressive ratio task. RESULTS: Across participants, nicotine expectancy independently reduced withdrawal related craving (p = .018), but no comparable effects of nicotine administration were evident. In quitting motivated smokers, nicotine expectancy and administration interacted to reduce intention to smoke (p = .040), while nicotine expectancy (p = .047) and administration (p = .025) independently reduced intention to smoke in quitting unmotivated smokers. Blunted heart rate reactivity to nicotine administration was observed in quitting motivated relative to unmotivated smokers (p = .042); however, neither expectancy nor administration impacted smoking behavior in either group (p values > .25). CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that participant quitting intentions moderate acute nicotine replacement therapy responses. In quitting motivated smokers, a combination of pharmacological and psychological factors may be necessary for nicotine replacement therapy to impact craving. IMPLICATIONS: Findings from this study demonstrate that motivations to quit smoking moderate subjective and physiological responses to acute nicotine administration and expectancy in dependent cigarette smokers. Quitting motivated smokers showed blunted heart rate reactivity to nicotine administration, suggesting that they may be less sensitive to the rewarding aspects of nicotine consumption. Nicotine administration and expectancy were found to interact to reduce craving in quitting motivated but not in unmotivated smokers, suggesting that pharmacological and psychological factors may be necessary for nicotine replacement therapy to impact craving in smokers who plan to quit.

Does acute tobacco smoking prevent cue-induced craving?

BACKGROUND: Smoking cessation aids appear to be limited in their ability to prevent craving triggered by exposure to smoking-associated stimuli; however, the extent to which cue-induced cravings persist following denicotinized or nicotine-containing tobacco smoking is not known. METHODS: Thirty (17 male) ⩾12-hour abstinent dependent smokers completed two sessions during which they smoked a nicotine-containing or denicotinized cigarette. Instructions regarding the nicotine content of the cigarette varied across sessions, and all participants were exposed to a neutral cue followed by a smoking cue after cigarette consumption. Craving was assessed before and after cigarette consumption and cue exposure. RESULTS: Reduced intentions to smoke were associated with both nicotine expectancy (p<0.05) and nicotine administration (p<0.01), while reduced withdrawal-related craving was uniquely associated with nicotine administration (p<0.05). Smoking-associated stimuli increased craving regardless of nicotine expectancy or administration (p-values<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: While both nicotine pharmacology and expectancy appear to contribute to craving reduction associated with acute tobacco smoking, neither smoking-related nicotine administration nor expectation prevents increases in craving following exposure to smoking-associated stimuli. These findings suggest that cue-induced craving may be resistant to various pharmacological and psychological interventions.

The impact of social context on cigarette self-administration in nondependent smokers.

Tobacco use in nondependent smokers (i.e. chippers) is believed to be largely determined by situational factors including social context. However, little empirical research has examined how different social contexts impact chippers' smoking behaviour. Twenty-eight (16 men) chippers completed two laboratory sessions where they were offered an opportunity to self-administer puffs of their preferred tobacco brand using a progressive ratio task. During an individual session, participants self-administered cigarettes alone and during a paired session, they self-administered cigarettes with a coparticipant who was also smoking. The strongest predictors for number of self-administered puffs and breakpoint during the paired session were coparticipants' number of puffs and breakpoint, respectively (P<0.001), followed by puffs taken and breakpoint during the individual session (P<0.01). Current smoking frequency (cigarettes/week) did not significantly predict puffs taken or breakpoint during the paired session. Latency to cigarette self-administration during the paired session was correlated positively with coparticipants' latency (P<0.05), but not with latency during the individual session or cigarettes per week. The findings suggest that the presence of another smoker exerts an important influence on the quantity of chippers' smoking behaviour, such that chippers match their smoking behaviour to that of other smokers in their proximate environment.

Acute effects of nicotine on alcohol cue-reactivity in nondependent and dependent smokers.

Evidence from alcohol self-administration studies suggests that nicotine replacement therapy may influence subjective and behavioral responses to alcohol. However, its effect on alcohol cue-reactivity is unknown. The present study examined the impact of acutely administered nicotine on subjective responses to alcohol-focused pictorial stimuli. In a mixed within/between-subjects design, nondependent smokers (n = 51) and dependent smokers (n = 45) who socially drink were assigned to either a nicotine (4 mg) or placebo lozenge condition following overnight tobacco abstinence. Following lozenge absorption, participants viewed neutral images followed by alcohol-focused pictures. Craving measures for alcohol and tobacco were completed at baseline, following lozenge absorption, following neutral cues, and following alcohol cues. The presentation of alcohol cues increased alcohol-related craving relative to neutral cues, especially among men, but the administration of nicotine did not influence the magnitude of these effects. Nicotine lozenges were found to decrease intentions to smoke and withdrawal-related craving in dependent but not in nondependent smokers. Finally, the presentation of alcohol cues was found to increase intentions to smoke relative to neutral cues across participants regardless of lozenge condition. Findings suggest that although the presentation of alcohol cues can increase alcohol- and tobacco-related cravings in smokers, such effects do not appear to be affected by acute nicotine administration.

The impact of anticipated and unanticipated smoking opportunities on cigarette smoking and nicotine lozenge responses.

BACKGROUND: Perceptions regarding the availability of smoking opportunities are known to affect cigarette craving; however, whether they impact actual smoking or how smokers respond to acute nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) administration is not known. This study examined the impact of pharmacological and expectancy components of NRT administration on craving and smoking in smokers anticipating or not anticipating an imminent smoking opportunity. METHODS: In total, 154 smokers (84 male) completed an experimental session in which instructions regarding the nicotine content of a lozenge (4 mg vs. no nicotine) and regarding the availability of a future smoking opportunity were manipulated. Cigarette craving was assessed before and after manipulations and lozenge administration. All participants were then allotted 1h to self-administer as many cigarette puffs as they wished. RESULTS: Unanticipated smoking opportunities reduced latency to self-administration (p<0.001), regardless of nicotine expectancy or pharmacology. When analyses included all participants, nicotine reduced intentions to smoke (p=0.016) and withdrawal-related craving (p=0.043) regardless of expectancy. Conversely, analyses using only "believers" of the nicotine content instructions revealed that nicotine expectancy reduced intentions to smoke (p=0.034) and withdrawal-related craving (p=0.047) regardless of actual nicotine administration. "Believers" also reported increased withdrawal-related craving when a smoking opportunity was perceived to be imminent (p=0.041). These effects were not significant when analyses included all participants. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that unexpected smoking opportunities may be more appealing than expected ones regardless of perceived or actual acute NRT use. They also highlight the importance of reporting balanced placebo findings using all participants as well as "believers" only.

The acute effects of tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption on video-lottery terminal gambling.

RATIONALE: Gamblers often use alcohol and/or tobacco when they gamble but little is known about the extent to which drinking or smoking affects gambling behavior. OBJECTIVES: This study examined the acute effects of alcohol and nicotine-containing tobacco administration on the subjective and behavioral responses to video-lottery terminal (VLT) gambling in 16 regular video-lottery terminal players (11 male) who were also regular consumers of alcohol and tobacco. METHODS: During four double-blind, counterbalanced sessions, participants assessed the subjective effects of nicotine-containing tobacco or denicotinized tobacco following the administration of a moderately intoxicating dose of alcohol or a placebo beverage. They were then given $40 and provided with an opportunity to gamble using an authentic VLT. RESULTS: Alcohol administration was associated with increased ratings of several subjective descriptors including "intoxicated", "high", "want alcohol", "crave cigarette", and "want to gamble" but did not affect subsequent gambling behavior. In contrast, relative to denicotinized tobacco, the administration of nicotine containing tobacco was associated with increased average wagers, but did not significantly alter subjective state. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that both alcohol and nicotine-containing tobacco may acutely increase the propensity to gamble using VLTs, but they may do so through separate processes.

Smoking cue reactivity in current smokers, former smokers and never smokers.

INTRODUCTION: Smoking related stimuli are known to increase both subjective craving and heart rate in smokers; however, little is currently known about the effects of such stimuli in former smokers. METHODS: Subjective craving and heart rate were measured in 38 never smokers, 20 former smokers, and 30 current smokers exposed to video clips containing neutral and smoking related cues. RESULTS: Compared with neutral cues, smoking cues significantly increased both heart rate and self-reported craving in current smokers, while in former smokers smoking cues were associated with a significant decrease in heart rate as well as with a relatively diminished increase in subjective craving. Neither craving nor heart rate was impacted by the smoking cues in never smokers. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that while smoking related stimuli continue to elicit modest subjective cravings in former smokers, there appears to be a marked change in the typical physiological response associated with such stimuli.

The effects of nicotine stimulus and response expectancies on male and female smokers' responses to nicotine-free electronic cigarettes.

BACKGROUND: Electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) have been reported to reduce tobacco craving and withdrawal; however, the mechanisms underlying these effects have not been elucidated. METHODS: This study examined the contributions of nicotine stimulus and response expectancies to responses to nicotine-free e-cigarettes in 21 e-cigarette naïve smokers (12 male). Participants completed two randomized experimental sessions in which they administered a nicotine-free e-cigarette. During one session they were informed that the e-cigarette contained nicotine and during the other session they were informed that the e-cigarette was nicotine-free. Participants completed subjective assessments before and immediately after sampling ten puffs from the e-cigarette and were then invited to earn additional puffs using a computerized progressive ratio task. Prior to their enrolment in the study, participants provided an estimate of the relative importance of the nicotine content of e-cigarettes for craving relief. RESULTS: Instructions that the e-cigarette contained nicotine were found to reduce both intention to smoke (p=0.017) and withdrawal-related (p=0.018) craving, regardless of a-priori reported beliefs regarding the relative importance of nicotine. Nicotine content instructions were also found to be associated with a shorter latency to self-administration (p=0.005); however, a Sex×Instructions×Response Expectancy interaction (p=0.008) revealed that this effect was specific to women who had strong a-priori nicotine content craving relief expectations. Neither nicotine content instructions nor response expectancies impacted the number of puffs self-administered. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that nicotine content expectations contribute to smokers' responses to e-cigarettes, and that a-priori beliefs about nicotine effects may be especially important in women.

Alcohol and tobacco cue effects on craving in non-daily smokers.

Non-daily smokers commonly smoke cigarettes following the consumption of alcohol, yet the reason(s) for this remains poorly understood. The present study examined the impact of alcohol consumption on responses in tobacco salient cues 49 male and 50 female non-daily smokers. After the administration of an alcohol, placebo, or control beverage, participants were exposed to series neutral video clips and tobacco smoking salient video clips, and their subjective states and heart rates were monitored. The timing of the exposure to the tobacco smoking clips was randomly determined to coincide with the timing of either the ascending limb or the descending limb of the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) curve of the alcohol beverage condition. The tobacco smoking clips were found to increase cigarette craving regardless of beverage condition or timing of exposure (p = .002). Alcohol consumption was associated with increased ratings of intoxication (p < .001), increased heart rate across participants (p < .001), and increased cigarette craving in female participants specifically (p = .017). Alcohol did not influence responses to the smoking videos. These results suggest that smoking salient cues and alcohol may impact cigarette craving in non-daily smokers through independent processes.

The effects of beliefs regarding drug assignment in experimental and field studies of nicotine delivery devices: a review.

The placebo effect of a psychoactive drug can be defined as the effect of expecting the drug in the absence of its pharmacological actions. As nicotine is widely believed to be the primary factor driving cigarette smoking, smokers are likely to expect nicotine to alleviate craving and withdrawal. The present review examines the extent to which any observed effects of nicotine, and especially its craving- and withdrawal-reducing effects, can be attributed to placebo. We begin by reviewing studies that examined the placebo effects of nicotine in the laboratory and follow with a review of potential placebo effects that are typically not controlled in placebo-controlled studies of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT). In laboratory studies, nicotine instructions decrease tobacco smoking, craving and/or withdrawal, while nicotine-specific effects have not been consistently reported. In field trials of NRT, there is a general failure to assess smokers' beliefs regarding their drug assignment. This omission makes it difficult to unequivocally attribute findings of placebo-controlled NRT studies to the physiological effects of nicotine. In sum, our review indicates that the placebo effects of nicotine, and specifically nicotine content expectations, may account for many of the benefits associated with nicotine delivery devices in both laboratory and field studies.

The impact of nicotine lozenges and stimulus expectancies on cigarette craving.

Reduced craving associated with nicotine replacement therapy use is frequently attributed to the effects of nicotine pharmacology, however non-pharmacological factors may also play a role. This study examined the impact of nicotine pharmacology and non-pharmacological components of an acute nicotine lozenge (4 mg) on cigarette craving, mood and heart rate in 70 daily smokers (36 male). Smoking-related stimuli were used to assess cue-induced craving. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in a balanced placebo design where half the participants were provided deceptive information regarding the nicotine content of a lozenge. Subjective ratings of craving and mood were collected and heart rate was assessed before and after neutral and smoking cues. Nicotine expectancy reduced withdrawal-related craving (p = 0.006) regardless of actual nicotine administration while combined nicotine expectancy and administration reduced intentions to smoke (p = 0.046) relative to each of the other conditions. Exposure to smoking-related stimuli increased cigarette craving (p ≤ 0.001) and negative affect (p ≤ 0.001) regardless of expectancy or pharmacology. Following the smoking cue, women reported a greater increase in withdrawal-related craving than men (p = 0.027). Findings suggest that both pharmacological and non-pharmacological components of nicotine lozenge administration contribute to its acute effects on craving, yet neither appears effective in preventing craving triggered by exposure to environmental smoking stimuli.

Cannabis use motives and personality risk factors.

According to the model of substance abuse of Conrod, Pihl, Stewart, and Dongier (2000), four personality factors (i.e., anxiety sensitivity [AS], introversion/hopelessness [I/H], sensation seeking [SS], and impulsivity [IMP]) are associated with elevated risk for substance use/misuse, with each personality factor being related to preference for particular drugs of abuse (e.g., AS with anxiolytics). However, cannabis use has not been consistently linked to any one of these personality factors. This may be due to the heterogeneity in cannabis use motives. The present study explored the association between these four personality risk factors and different cannabis use motives. Cannabis users completed an interview about their motives for cannabis use as well as the self-report Substance Use Risk Profile Scale (SURPS; Woicik, Conrod, Stewart, & Pihl, 2009), which measures the four personality risk factors. Results showed that AS was associated with conformity motives and I/H was associated with coping motives for cannabis use. SS was positively associated with expansion motives and IMP was associated with drug availability motives. Thus, personality risk factors in the model of Conrod et al. (2000) are associated with distinct cannabis use motives in a pattern consistent with theory.

The effect of snus on alcohol-related cigarette administration in dependent and non-dependent smokers.

INTRODUCTION: Alcohol has been found to increase tobacco smoking in both dependent daily smokers (DDS) and nondependent nondaily smokers (NNS), yet little attention has been directed toward examining how different treatments/products modify drinking-related smoking behavior. METHODS: This study examined the acute effects of snus (4mg of nicotine) on alcohol-related smoking responses in 18 DDS and 17 NNS. During each double-blind session, participants were randomly assigned to receive one of the following combinations: alcohol and snus, alcohol and placebo snus, placebo alcohol and snus, or placebo alcohol and placebo snus. Participants consumed their assigned beverage before absorbing their session's product, and after 30min participants could self-administer puffs of their preferred brand of cigarette over a 60-minute period using a progressive ratio task. RESULTS: Alcohol significantly increased tobacco craving (p<.001) and tended to decrease latency to start smoking (p=.021) but only among NNS. In contrast, snus tended to decrease the number of puffs earned and how hard DDS worked for puffs in both beverage conditions (ps≤.019) but it did not alter the smoking behavior of NNS. Craving was not significantly impacted by snus in either type of smoker. DISCUSSION: These findings raise the possibility that different processes mediate alcohol and cigarette co-use in NNS and DDS and suggest that snus may be effective in reducing alcohol-related cigarette use in DDS specifically.