Astrocytes derived from ASD individuals alter behavior and destabilize neuronal activity through aberrant Ca2+ signaling.

The cellular mechanisms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are poorly understood. Cumulative evidence suggests that abnormal synapse function underlies many features of this disease. Astrocytes regulate several key neuronal processes, including the formation of synapses and the modulation of synaptic plasticity. Astrocyte abnormalities have also been identified in the postmortem brain tissue of ASD individuals. However, it remains unclear whether astrocyte pathology plays a mechanistic role in ASD, as opposed to a compensatory response. To address this, we combined stem cell culturing with transplantation techniques to determine disease-specific properties inherent to ASD astrocytes. We demonstrate that ASD astrocytes induce repetitive behavior as well as impair memory and long-term potentiation when transplanted into the healthy mouse brain. These in vivo phenotypes were accompanied by reduced neuronal network activity and spine density caused by ASD astrocytes in hippocampal neurons in vitro. Transplanted ASD astrocytes also exhibit exaggerated Ca2+ fluctuations in chimeric brains. Genetic modulation of evoked Ca2+ responses in ASD astrocytes modulates behavior and neuronal activity deficits. Thus, this study determines that astrocytes derived from ASD iPSCs are sufficient to induce repetitive behavior as well as cognitive deficit, suggesting a previously unrecognized primary role for astrocytes in ASD.

Neurodevelopmental signatures of narcotic and neuropsychiatric risk factors in 3D human-derived forebrain organoids.

It is widely accepted that narcotic use during pregnancy and specific environmental factors (e.g., maternal immune activation and chronic stress) may increase risk of neuropsychiatric illness in offspring. However, little progress has been made in defining human-specific in utero neurodevelopmental pathology due to ethical and technical challenges associated with accessing human prenatal brain tissue. Here we utilized human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to generate reproducible organoids that recapitulate dorsal forebrain development including early corticogenesis. We systemically exposed organoid samples to chemically defined "enviromimetic" compounds to examine the developmental effects of various narcotic and neuropsychiatric-related risk factors within tissue of human origin. In tandem experiments conducted in parallel, we modeled exposure to opiates (µ-opioid agonist endomorphin), cannabinoids (WIN 55,212-2), alcohol (ethanol), smoking (nicotine), chronic stress (human cortisol), and maternal immune activation (human Interleukin-17a; IL17a). Human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids were consequently analyzed via an array of unbiased and high-throughput analytical approaches, including state-of-the-art TMT-16plex liquid chromatography/mass-spectrometry (LC/MS) proteomics, hybrid MS metabolomics, and flow cytometry panels to determine cell-cycle dynamics and rates of cell death. This pipeline subsequently revealed both common and unique proteome, reactome, and metabolome alterations as a consequence of enviromimetic modeling of narcotic use and neuropsychiatric-related risk factors in tissue of human origin. However, of our 6 treatment groups, human-derived organoids treated with the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2 exhibited the least convergence of all groups. Single-cell analysis revealed that WIN 55,212-2 increased DNA fragmentation, an indicator of apoptosis, in human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids. We subsequently confirmed induction of DNA damage and apoptosis by WIN 55,212-2 within 3D human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids. Lastly, in a BrdU pulse-chase neocortical neurogenesis paradigm, we identified that WIN 55,212-2 was the only enviromimetic treatment to disrupt newborn neuron numbers within human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids. Cumulatively this study serves as both a resource and foundation from which human 3D biologics can be used to resolve the non-genomic effects of neuropsychiatric risk factors under controlled laboratory conditions. While synthetic cannabinoids can differ from naturally occurring compounds in their effects, our data nonetheless suggests that exposure to WIN 55,212-2 elicits neurotoxicity within human-derived developing forebrain tissue. These human-derived data therefore support the long-standing belief that maternal use of cannabinoids may require caution so to avoid any potential neurodevelopmental effects upon developing offspring in utero.

Pathological Aspects of Neuronal Hyperploidization in Alzheimer's Disease Evidenced by Computer Simulation.

When subjected to stress, terminally differentiated neurons are susceptible to reactivate the cell cycle and become hyperploid. This process is well documented in Alzheimer's disease (AD), where it may participate in the etiology of the disease. However, despite its potential importance, the effects of neuronal hyperploidy (NH) on brain function and its relationship with AD remains obscure. An important step forward in our understanding of the pathological effect of NH has been the development of transgenic mice with neuronal expression of oncogenes as model systems of AD. The analysis of these mice has demonstrated that forced cell cycle reentry in neurons results in most hallmarks of AD, including neurofibrillary tangles, Aß peptide deposits, gliosis, cognitive loss, and neuronal death. Nevertheless, in contrast to the pathological situation, where a relatively small proportion of neurons become hyperploid, neuronal cell cycle reentry in these mice is generalized. We have recently developed an in vitro system in which cell cycle is induced in a reduced proportion of differentiated neurons, mimicking the in vivo situation. This manipulation reveals that NH correlates with synaptic dysfunction and morphological changes in the affected neurons, and that membrane depolarization facilitates the survival of hyperploid neurons. This suggests that the integration of synaptically silent, hyperploid neurons in electrically active neural networks allows their survival while perturbing the normal functioning of the network itself, a hypothesis that we have tested in silico. In this perspective, we will discuss on these aspects trying to convince the reader that NH represents a relevant process in AD.

Primary neurons can enter M-phase.

Differentiated neurons can undergo cell cycle re-entry during pathological conditions, but it remains largely accepted that M-phase is prohibited in these cells. Here we show that primary neurons at post-synaptogenesis stages of development can enter M-phase. We induced cell cycle re-entry by overexpressing a truncated Cyclin E isoform fused to Cdk2. Cyclin E/Cdk2 expression elicits canonical cell cycle checkpoints, which arrest cell cycle progression and trigger apoptosis. As in mitotic cells, checkpoint abrogation enables cell cycle progression through S and G2-phases into M-phase. Although most neurons enter M-phase, only a small subset undergo cell division. Alternatively, neurons can exit M-phase without cell division and recover the axon initial segment, a structural determinant of neuronal viability. We conclude that neurons and mitotic cells share S, G2 and M-phase regulation.