Origin of life: protoribosome forms peptide bonds and links RNA and protein dominated worlds.

Although the mode of action of the ribosomes, the multi-component universal effective protein-synthesis organelles, has been thoroughly explored, their mere appearance remained elusive. Our earlier comparative structural studies suggested that a universal internal small RNA pocket-like segment called by us the protoribosome, which is still embedded in the contemporary ribosome, is a vestige of the primordial ribosome. Herein, after constructing such pockets, we show using the "fragment reaction" and its analyses by MALDI-TOF and LC-MS mass spectrometry techniques, that several protoribosome constructs are indeed capable of mediating peptide-bond formation. These findings present strong evidence supporting our hypothesis on origin of life and on ribosome's construction, thus suggesting that the protoribosome may be the missing link between the RNA dominated world and the contemporary nucleic acids/proteins life.

Cryo-EM structure of the highly atypical cytoplasmic ribosome of Euglena gracilis.

Ribosomal RNA is the central component of the ribosome, mediating its functional and architectural properties. Here, we report the cryo-EM structure of a highly divergent cytoplasmic ribosome from the single-celled eukaryotic alga Euglena gracilis. The Euglena large ribosomal subunit is distinct in that it contains 14 discrete rRNA fragments that are assembled non-covalently into the canonical ribosome structure. The rRNA is substantially enriched in post-transcriptional modifications that are spread far beyond the catalytic RNA core, contributing to the stabilization of this highly fragmented ribosome species. A unique cluster of five adenosine base methylations is found in an expansion segment adjacent to the protein exit tunnel, such that it is positioned for interaction with the nascent peptide. As well as featuring distinctive rRNA expansion segments, the Euglena ribosome contains four novel ribosomal proteins, localized to the ribosome surface, three of which do not have orthologs in other eukaryotes.

Structure of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ribosomes from an aminoglycoside-resistant clinical isolate.

Resistance to antibiotics has become a major threat to modern medicine. The ribosome plays a fundamental role in cell vitality by the translation of the genetic code into proteins; hence, it is a major target for clinically useful antibiotics. We report here the cryo-electron microscopy structures of the ribosome of a pathogenic aminoglycoside (AG)-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain, as well as of a nonresistance strain isolated from a cystic fibrosis patient. The structural studies disclosed defective ribosome complex formation due to a conformational change of rRNA helix H69, an essential intersubunit bridge, and a secondary binding site of the AGs. In addition, a stable conformation of nucleotides A1486 and A1487, pointing into helix h44, is created compared to a non-AG-bound ribosome. We suggest that altering the conformations of ribosomal protein uL6 and rRNA helix H69, which interact with initiation-factor IF2, interferes with proper protein synthesis initiation.

A Recombinant Collagen-mRNA Platform for Controllable Protein Synthesis.

We have developed a collagen-mRNA platform for controllable protein production that is intended to be less prone to the problems associated with commonly used mRNA therapy as well as with collagen skin-healing procedures. A collagen mimic was constructed according to a recombinant method and was used as scaffold for translating mRNA chains into proteins. Cysteines were genetically inserted into the collagen chain at positions allowing efficient ribosome translation activity while minimizing mRNA misfolding and degradation. Enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) mRNA bound to collagen was successfully translated by cell-free Escherichia coli ribosomes. This system enabled an accurate control of specific protein synthesis by monitoring expression time and level. Luciferase-mRNA was also translated on collagen scaffold by eukaryotic cell extracts. Thus we have demonstrated the feasibility of controllable protein synthesis on collagen scaffolds by ribosomal machinery.

The Proto-Ribosome: an ancient nano-machine for peptide bond formation.

The ribosome is a ribozyme whose active site, the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) is situated within a highly conserved universal symmetrical region that connects all ribosomal functional centers involved in amino-acid polymerization. The linkage between this elaborate architecture and A-site tRNA position revealed that the A to P-site passage of the tRNA 3' terminus during protein synthesis is performed by a rotary motion, synchronized with the overall tRNA/mRNA sideways movement and Guided by the PTC. This rotary motion leads to suitable stereochemistry for peptide bond formation as well as for substrate mediated catalysis. Analysis of the substrate binding modes to ribosomes led to the hypothesis that the ancient ribosome produced single peptide bonds and non-coded chains, potentially in a similar manner to the modern PTC. Later in evolution, a mechanism, enabling some type of decoding genetic control triggered the emergence of the small ribosomal subunit or part of it. This seems to be the result of the appearance of reaction products that could have evolved after polypeptides capable of enzymatic function were generated sporadically, while an ancient stable RNA fold was converted into an old version of a tRNA molecule. As in the contemporary ribosome the symmetry relates only the backbone fold and nucleotides orientations but not nucleotide sequences, it emphasizes the superiority of functional requirement over sequence conservation, and indicates that the PTC may have evolved by gene fusion or gene duplication.

The evolving ribosome: from non-coded peptide bond formation to sophisticated translation machinery.

Structural analysis supported by biochemical, mutagenesis and computational evidence, revealed that the contemporary ribosome's active site is a universal symmetrical pocket made of ribosomal RNA. This pocket seems to be the remnant of the proto-ribosome, a dimeric RNA assembly evolved by gene duplication, capable of autonomously catalyzing peptide bond formation and non-coded amino acid polymerization.

Ribosome's mode of function: myths, facts and recent results.

Ribosomes translate the genetic code into proteins in all living cells with extremely high efficiency, owing to their inherent flexibility and to their spectacular architecture. During the last 6 decades, extensive effort has been made to elucidate the molecular mechanisms associated with their function, and a quantum jump has been made in recent years, once the three dimensional structures of ribosomes and their functional complexes have been determined. These illuminated key issues in ribosome function, confirmed various biochemical, genetic, and medical findings, and revealed mechanistic details beyond previous expectation, thus leading to conceptual revolutions, and turning old myths into actual facts.

The transition state for formation of the peptide bond in the ribosome.

Using quantum mechanics and exploiting known crystallographic coordinates of tRNA substrate located in the ribosome peptidyl transferase center around the 2-fold axis, we have investigated the mechanism for peptide-bond formation. The calculation is based on a choice of 50 atoms assumed to be important in the mechanism. We used density functional theory to optimize the geometry and energy of the transition state (TS) for peptide-bond formation. The TS is formed simultaneously with the rotatory motion enabling the translocation of the A-site tRNA 3' end into the P site, and we estimated the magnitude of rotation angle between the A-site starting position and the place at which the TS occurs. The calculated TS activation energy, E(a), is 35.5 kcal (1 kcal = 4.18 kJ)/mol, and the increase in hydrogen bonding between the rotating A-site tRNA and ribosome nucleotides as the TS forms appears to stabilize it to a value qualitatively estimated to be approximately 18 kcal/mol. The optimized geometry corresponds to a structure in which the peptide bond is being formed as other bonds are being broken, in such a manner as to release the P-site tRNA so that it may exit as a free molecule and be replaced by the translocating A-site tRNA. At TS formation the 2' OH group of the P-site tRNA A76 forms a hydrogen bond with the oxygen atom of the carboxyl group of the amino acid attached to the A-site tRNA, which may be indicative of its catalytic role, consistent with recent biochemical experiments.

Structure of trigger factor binding domain in biologically homologous complex with eubacterial ribosome reveals its chaperone action.

Trigger factor (TF), the first chaperone in eubacteria to encounter the emerging nascent chain, binds to the large ribosomal subunit in the vicinity of the protein exit tunnel opening and forms a sheltered folding space. Here, we present the 3.5-A crystal structure of the physiological complex of the large ribosomal subunit from the eubacterium Deinococcus radiodurans with the N-terminal domain of TF (TFa) from the same organism. For anchoring, TFa exploits a small ribosomal surface area in the vicinity of proteins L23 and L29, by using its "signature motif" as well as additional structural elements. The molecular details of TFa interactions reveal that L23 is essential for the association of TF with the ribosome and may serve as a channel of communication with the nascent chain progressing in the tunnel. L29 appears to induce a conformational change in TFa, which results in the exposure of TFa hydrophobic patches to the opening of the ribosomal exit tunnel, thus increasing its affinity for hydrophobic segments of the emerging nascent polypeptide. This observation implies that, in addition to creating a protected folding space for the emerging nascent chain, TF association with the ribosome prevents aggregation by providing a competing hydrophobic environment and may be critical for attaining the functional conformation necessary for chaperone activity.

Ribosomal crystallography: a flexible nucleotide anchoring tRNA translocation, facilitates peptide-bond formation, chirality discrimination and antibiotics synergism.

The linkage between internal ribosomal symmetry and transfer RNA (tRNA) positioning confirmed positional catalysis of amino-acid polymerization. Peptide bonds are formed concurrently with tRNA-3' end rotatory motion, in conjunction with the overall messenger RNA (mRNA)/tRNA translocation. Accurate substrate alignment, mandatory for the processivity of protein biosynthesis, is governed by remote interactions. Inherent flexibility of a conserved nucleotide, anchoring the rotatory motion, facilitates chirality discrimination and antibiotics synergism. Potential tRNA interactions explain the universality of the tRNA CCA-end and P-site preference of initial tRNA. The interactions of protein L2 tail with the symmetry-related region periphery explain its conservation and its contributions to nascent chain elongation.

Ribosomal crystallography: peptide bond formation and its inhibition.

Ribosomes, the universal cellular organelles catalyzing the translation of genetic code into proteins, are protein/RNA assemblies, of a molecular weight 2.5 mega Daltons or higher. They are built of two subunits that associate for performing protein biosynthesis. The large subunit creates the peptide bond and provides the path for emerging proteins. The small has key roles in initiating the process and controlling its fidelity. Crystallographic studies on complexes of the small and the large eubacterial ribosomal subunits with substrate analogs, antibiotics, and inhibitors confirmed that the ribosomal RNA governs most of its activities, and indicated that the main catalytic contribution of the ribosome is the precise positioning and alignment of its substrates, the tRNA molecules. A symmetry-related region of a significant size, containing about two hundred nucleotides, was revealed in all known structures of the large ribosomal subunit, despite the asymmetric nature of the ribosome. The symmetry rotation axis, identified in the middle of the peptide-bond formation site, coincides with the bond connecting the tRNA double-helical features with its single-stranded 3' end, which is the moiety carrying the amino acids. This thus implies sovereign movements of tRNA features and suggests that tRNA translocation involves a rotatory motion within the ribosomal active site. This motion is guided and anchored by ribosomal nucleotides belonging to the active site walls, and results in geometry suitable for peptide-bond formation with no significant rearrangements. The sole geometrical requirement for this proposed mechanism is that the initial P-site tRNA adopts the flipped orientation. The rotatory motion is the major component of unified machinery for peptide-bond formation, translocation, and nascent protein progression, since its spiral nature ensures the entrance of the nascent peptide into the ribosomal exit tunnel. This tunnel, assumed to be a passive path for the growing chains, was found to be involved dynamically in gating and discrimination.

On peptide bond formation, translocation, nascent protein progression and the regulatory properties of ribosomes. Derived on 20 October 2002 at the 28th FEBS Meeting in Istanbul.

High-resolution crystal structures of large ribosomal subunits from Deinococcus radiodurans complexed with tRNA-mimics indicate that precise substrate positioning, mandatory for efficient protein biosynthesis with no further conformational rearrangements, is governed by remote interactions of the tRNA helical features. Based on the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) architecture, on the placement of tRNA mimics, and on the existence of a two-fold related region consisting of about 180 nucleotides of the 23S RNA, we proposed a unified mechanism integrating peptide bond formation, A-to-P site translocation, and the entrance of the nascent protein into its exit tunnel. This mechanism implies sovereign, albeit correlated, motions of the tRNA termini and includes a spiral rotation of the A-site tRNA-3' end around a local two-fold rotation axis, identified within the PTC. PTC features, ensuring the precise orientation required for the A-site nucleophilic attack on the P-site carbonyl-carbon, guide these motions. Solvent mediated hydrogen transfer appears to facilitate peptide bond formation in conjunction with the spiral rotation. The detection of similar two-fold symmetry-related regions in all known structures of the large ribosomal subunit, indicate the universality of this mechanism, and emphasizes the significance of the ribosomal template for the precise alignment of the substrates as well as for accurate and efficient translocation. The symmetry-related region may also be involved in regulatory tasks, such as signal transmission between the ribosomal features facilitating the entrance and the release of the tRNA molecules. The protein exit tunnel is an additional feature that has a role in cellular regulation. We showed by crystallographic methods that this tunnel is capable of undergoing conformational oscillations and correlated the tunnel mobility with sequence discrimination, gating and intracellular regulation.