Circulating vitamin D level before initiating chemotherapy impacts on the time-to-outcome in metastatic colorectal cancer patients: systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin D (VD) is implicated in various health conditions, including colorectal cancer (CRC). To investigate potential relationships between pre-chemotherapy VD levels and the time-to-outcome in metastatic CRC patients, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we performed thorough searches in PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus/ELSEVIER databases (covering the years 2002 to 2022). Inclusion criteria mandated studies to report on individuals aged 18 years and above with histologically confirmed stage IV CRC. Additionally, studies needed to provide data on VD levels before chemotherapy, along with hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for overall survival (OS) and/or progression-free survival (PFS). Five articles were identified with the aim of establishing a combined risk estimate for death and progression based on pre-chemotherapy VD levels. Heterogeneity among studies and publication bias were evaluated using Tau2, I2 statistics, and a Funnel plot. RESULTS: Although no significant heterogeneity was observed in time-to-outcome among the selected studies, variations in technical assessments and serum VD concentration measurements were noted. The pooled analysis, involving 1712 patients for OS and 1264 patients for PFS, revealed a 47% increased risk of death (HR: 1.47, 95% CI: 1.21-1.79) and a 38% increased risk of progression (HR: 1.38, 95% CI: 1.13-1.70) for patients with lower VD levels, as indicated by fixed-effects models. CONCLUSIONS: Our results emphasize the adverse effects of low VD concentration on the time-to-outcome in metastatic CRC patients. This underscores the importance of investigating VD supplementation as an innovative approach in this clinical setting to enhance patient outcomes.

Cost-utility analysis and cross-country comparison of pharmacogenomics-guided treatment in colorectal cancer patients participating in the U-PGx PREPARE study.

OBJECTIVES: A cost-utility analysis was conducted to evaluate pharmacogenomic (PGx)-guided treatment compared to the standard-of-care intervention among patients diagnosed with colorectal cancer (CRC) in Italy. METHODS: Data derived from a prospective, open-label, block randomized clinical trial, as a part of the largest PGx study worldwide (355 patients in both arms) were used. Mortality was used as the primary health outcome to estimate life years (LYs) gained in treatment arms within a survival analysis context. PGx-guided treatment was based on established drug-gene interactions between capecitabine, 5-fluorouracil and irinotecan with DPYD and/or UGT1A1 genomic variants. Utility values for the calculation of Quality Adjusted Life Year (QALY) was based on Visual Analog Scale (VAS) score. Missing data were imputed via the Multiple Imputation method and linear interpolation, when possible, while censored cost data were corrected via the Replace-From-The-Right algorithm. The Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio (ICER) was calculated for QALYs. Raw data were bootstrapped 5000 times in order to produce 95% Confidence Intervals based on non-parametric percentile method and to construct a cost-effectiveness acceptability curve. Cost differences for study groups were investigated via a generalized linear regression model analysis. Total therapy cost per patient reflected all resources expended in the management of any adverse events, including medications, diagnostics tests, devices, surgeries, the utilization of intensive care units, and wards. RESULTS: The total cost of the study arm was estimated at €380 (∼ US$416; 95%CI: 195-596) compared to €565 (∼ US$655; 95%CI: 340-724) of control arm while the mean survival in study arm was estimated at 1.58 (+0.25) LYs vs 1.50 (+0.26) (Log Rank test, X2 = 4.219, df=1, p-value=0.04). No statistically significant difference was found in QALYs. ICER was estimated at €13418 (∼ US$14695) per QALY, while the acceptability curve indicated that when the willingness-to-pay was under €5000 (∼ US$5476), the probability of PGx being cost-effective overcame 70%. The most frequent adverse drug event in both groups was neutropenia of severity grade 3 and 4, accounting for 82.6% of total events in the study arm and 65.0% in the control arm. Apart from study arm, smoking status, Body-Mass-Index and Cumulative Actionability were also significant predictors of total cost. Subgroup analysis conducted in actionable patients (7.9% of total patients) indicated that PGx-guided treatment was a dominant option over its comparator with a probability greater than 92%. In addition, a critical literature review was conducted, and these findings are in line with those reported in other European countries. CONCLUSION: PGx-guided treatment strategy may represent a cost-saving option compared to the existing conventional therapeutic approach for colorectal cancer patient management in the National Health Service of Italy.

LC-MS/MS Method for the Quantification of PARP Inhibitors Olaparib, Rucaparib and Niraparib in Human Plasma and Dried Blood Spot: Development, Validation and Clinical Validation for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring.

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors (PARPis) are becoming increasingly meaningful in oncology, and their therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) might be beneficial for patients. Several bioanalytical methods have been reported for PARPis quantification in human plasma, but advantages might be obtained using dried blood spot (DBS) as a sampling technique. Our aim was to develop and validate a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) method for olaparib, rucaparib, and niraparib quantification in both human plasma and DBS matrices. Additionally, we aimed to assess the correlation between the drug concentrations measured in these two matrices. DBS from patients was obtained using Hemaxis DB10 for volumetric sampling. Analytes were separated on a Cortecs-T3 column and detected with electrospray ionization (ESI)-MS in positive ionization mode. Validation was performed according to the latest regulatory guidelines, in the range (ng/mL) 140-7000 for olaparib, 100-5000 for rucaparib, and 60-3000 for niraparib, within the hematocrit (Hct) range 29-45%. The Passing-Bablok and Bland-Altman statistical analyses revealed a strong correlation between plasma and DBS for olaparib and niraparib. However, due to the limited amount of data, it was challenging to establish a robust regression analysis for rucaparib. To ensure a more reliable assessment, additional samples are required. The DBS-to-plasma ratio was used as a conversion factor (CF) without considering any patient-related hematological parameters. These results provide a solid basis for the feasibility of PARPis TDM using both plasma and DBS matrices.

Pharmacogenetics Role of Genetic Variants in Immune-Related Factors: A Systematic Review Focusing on mCRC.

Pharmacogenetics plays a key role in personalized cancer treatment. Currently, the clinically available pharmacogenetic markers for metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) are in genes related to drug metabolism, such as DPYD for fluoropyrimidines and UGT1A1 for irinotecan. Recently, the impact of host variability in inflammatory and immune-response genes on treatment response has gained considerable attention, opening innovative perspectives for optimizing tailored mCRC therapy. A literature review was performed on the predictive role of immune-related germline genetic biomarkers on pharmacological outcomes in patients with mCRC. Particularly, that for efficacy and toxicity was reported and the potential role for clinical management of patients was discussed. Most of the available data regard therapy effectiveness, while the impact on toxicity remains limited. Several studies focused on the effects of polymorphisms in genes related to antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (FCGR2A, FCGR3A) and yielded promising but inconclusive results on cetuximab efficacy. The remaining published data are sparse and mainly hypothesis-generating but suggest potentially interesting topics for future pharmacogenetic studies, including innovative gene-drug interactions in a clinical context. Besides the tumor immune escape pathway, genetic markers belonging to cytokines/interleukins (IL-8 and its receptors) and angiogenic mediators (IGF1) seem to be the best investigated and hopefully most promising to be translated into clinical practice after validation.

Evaluation of Concomitant Use of Anticancer Drugs and Herbal Products: From Interactions to Synergic Activity.

CAM is used by about 40% of cancer patients in Western Countries, with peaks of 80% for breast cancer patients. Cancer patients use CAM to boost immune function, to control cancer symptoms and treatment-related side effects, and to improve health-related quality of life (HR-QoL) and survival. Unfortunately, self-prescription of natural remedies in cancer patients can lead to unexpected toxicities and can reduce the effectiveness of cancer therapy. Although CAM usually refers to all the "natural or organic" products/methods that are generally considered less toxic, there are concerns about drug interactions, especially in patients participating in clinical trials with experimental agents. Despite the claims of the promising and potential benefits made by prescribers, many CAMs lack clear scientific evidence of their safety and efficacy. Given the widespread use of CAM-both clearly declared and overt-in this review, we focused on the most important known data on the risk of interactions between biologics and oncology drugs with the goal of opening up CAM in accordance with the meaning of integrative medicine.

Predicting drug response and toxicity in metastatic colorectal cancer: the role of germline markers.

INTRODUCTION: Despite the introduction of targeted agents leading to therapeutic advances, clinical management of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) is still challenged by significant interindividual variability in treatment outcomes, both in terms of toxicity and therapy efficacy. The study of germline genetic variants could help to personalize and optimize therapeutic approaches in mCRC. AREAS COVERED: A systematic review of pharmacogenetic studies in mCRC patients published on PubMed between 2011 and 2021, evaluating the role of germline variants as predictive markers of toxicity and efficacy of drugs currently approved for treatment of mCRC, was perfomed. EXPERT OPINION: Despite the large amount of pharmacogenetic data published to date, only a few genetic markers (i.e. DPYD and UGT1A1 variants) reached the clinical practice, mainly to prevent the toxic effects of chemotherapy. The large heterogeneity of available studies represents the major limitation in comparing results and identifying potential markers for clinical use, the role of which remains exploratory in most cases. However, the available published findings are an important starting point for future investigations. They highlighted new promising pharmacogenetic markers within the network of inflammatory and immune response signaling. In addition, the emerging role of previously overlooked rare variants has been pointed out.

The Multiple Effects of Vitamin D against Chronic Diseases: From Reduction of Lipid Peroxidation to Updated Evidence from Clinical Studies.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin D exerts multiple beneficial effects in humans, including neuronal, immune, and bone homeostasis and the regulation of cardiovascular functions. Recent studies correlate vitamin D with cancer cell growth and survival, but meta-analyses on this topic are often not consistent. METHODS: A systematic search of the PubMed database and the Clinical Trial Register was performed to identify all potentially relevant English-language scientific papers containing original research articles on the effects of vitamin D on human health. RESULTS: In this review, we analyzed the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of vitamin D against acute and chronic diseases, focusing particularly on cancer, immune-related diseases, cardiomyophaties (including heart failure, cardiac arrhythmias, and atherosclerosis) and infectious diseases. CONCLUSIONS: Vitamin D significantly reduces the pro-oxidant systemic and tissue biomarkers involved in the development, progression, and recurrence of chronic cardiometabolic disease and cancer. The overall picture of this review provides the basis for new randomized controlled trials of oral vitamin D supplementation in patients with cancer and infectious, neurodegenerative, and cardiovascular diseases aimed at reducing risk factors for disease recurrence and improving quality of life.

IL15RA and SMAD3 Genetic Variants Predict Overall Survival in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer Patients Treated with FOLFIRI Therapy: A New Paradigm.

A new paradigm in cancer chemotherapy derives from the interaction between chemotherapeutics, including irinotecan and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), and the immune system. The patient's immune response can modulate chemotherapy effectiveness, and, on the other hand, chemotherapeutic agents can foster tumor cell immunogenicity. On these grounds, the analysis of the cancer patients' immunogenetic characteristics and their effect on survival after chemotherapy represent a new frontier. This study aims to identify genetic determinants in the immuno-related pathways predictive of overall survival (OS) after FOLFIRI (irinotecan, 5-FU, leucovorin) therapy. Two independent cohorts comprising a total of 335 patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) homogeneously treated with first-line FOLFIRI were included in the study. The prognostic effect of 192 tagging genetic polymorphisms in 34 immune-related genes was evaluated using the bead array technology. The IL15RA rs7910212-C allele was associated with worse OS in both discovery (HR: 1.57, p = 0.0327, Bootstrap p-value = 0.0280) and replication (HR: 1.71, p = 0.0411) cohorts. Conversely, SMAD3 rs7179840-C allele was associated with better OS in both discovery (HR: 0.65, p = 0.0202, Bootstrap p-value = 0.0203) and replication (HR: 0.61, p = 0.0216) cohorts. A genetic prognostic score was generated integrating IL15RA-rs7910212 and SMAD3-rs7179840 markers with inflammation-related prognostic polymorphisms we previously identified in the same study population (i.e., PXR [NR1I2]-rs1054190, VDR-rs7299460). The calculated genetic score successfully discriminated patients with different survival probabilities (p < 0.0001 log-rank test). These findings provide new insight on the prognostic value of genetic determinants, such as IL15RA and SMAD3 markers, and could offer a new decision tool to improve the clinical management of patients with mCRC receiving FOLFIRI.

SMAD3 Host and Tumor Profiling to Identify Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer Patients at High Risk of Poor Response to Neoadjuvant Chemoradiotherapy.

Identifying patients at risk of poor response to neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy (nCRT) is an emerging clinical need in locally advanced rectal cancer (LARC). SMAD3 is a key player in the chemoradio-resistance phenotype and its expression is both constitutive and locally induced. The aim was to investigate both host (genetic polymorphisms) and tumor SMAD3 profiling to predict response to nCRT. In a group of 76 LARC patients, SMAD3 and phosphorylated-SMAD3 expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry in preoperative tumor tissue. In an expanded study group (n = 378), a set of SMAD3 polymorphisms (rs35874463, rs1065080, rs1061427, rs17228212, rs744910, and rs745103) was analyzed. Association with tumor regression grade (TRG) and patient prognosis (progression-free survival [PFS] and overall survival [OS]) was assessed. Patients with high tumor expression of SMAD3 had a significantly increased risk of poor response (TRG≥2) [cellularity >55% (OR:10.36, p = 0.0004), or moderate/high intensity (OR:5.20, p = 0.0038), or an H-score≥1 (OR:9.84, p = 0.0004)]. Patients carrying the variant SMAD3 rs745103-G allele had a poorer response (OR:0.48, p = 0.0093), a longer OS (HR:0.65, p = 0.0307), and a trend for longer PFS (HR:0.75, p = 0.0944). Patients who carried both high SMAD3 tumor expression and the wild-type rs745103-A allele had an extremely high risk of not achieving a complete response (OR:13.45, p = 0.0005). Host and tumor SMAD3 status might be considered to improve risk stratification of LARC patients to facilitate selection for alternative personalized neoadjuvant strategies including intensified regimens.

Resveratrol in Cancer Patients: From Bench to Bedside.

Resveratrol (3,5,4'-trihydroxystilbene) is a natural phytoalexin that accumulates in several vegetables and fruits like nuts, grapes, apples, red fruits, black olives, capers, red rice as well as red wines. Being both an extremely reactive molecule and capable to interact with cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins in human cells, resveratrol has been studied over the years as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for the therapy of cancer, metabolic and cardiovascular diseases like myocardial ischemia, myocarditis, cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. This review will describe the main biological targets, cardiovascular outcomes, physico-chemical and pharmacokinetic properties of resveratrol in preclinical and clinical models implementing its potential use in cancer patients.

Genetic Markers of the Host to Predict the Efficacy of Colorectal Cancer Targeted Therapy.

The introduction of anti-EGFR (cetuximab and panitumumab) and antiangiogenic (bevacizumab, regorafeninb, ramucirumab, and aflibercept) agents in the therapeutic armamentarium of the metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC) has significantly improved the therapeutic efficacy and patients survival. However, despite the great improvements achieved in the patients life expectation, the high inter-individual heterogeneity in the response to the targeted agents still represent an issue for the management of advanced CRC patients. Even if the role of tumor genetic mutations as predictive markers of drug efficacy has been well-established, the contribution of the host genetic markers is still controversial. Promising results regard the germ-line immune-profile, inflammation and tumor microenvironment. Inherent variations in KRAS 3'UTR region as well as EGF/ EGFR genes were investigated as markers of cetuximab effectiveness. More recently interesting data in the field of anti- EGFR agents were generated also for germ-line variants in genes involved in inflammation (e.g. COX-2, LIFR, IGF1 signaling), immune system (e.g., FCGRs, IL-1RA), and other players of the RAS signaling, including the Hippo pathway related genes (e.g. Rassf, YAP, TAZ). Host genetic variants in VEGF-dependent (i.e., EGF, IGF-1, HIF1α, eNOS, iNOS) and -independent (i.e., EMT cascade, EGFL7) pathways, with specific attention on inflammation and immune system-related factors (e.g., IL-8, CXCR-1/2, CXCR4-CXCL12 axis, TLRs, GADD34, PPP1R15A, ANXA11, MKNK1), were investigated as predictive markers of bevacizumab outcome, generating some promising results. In this review, we aimed to summarize the most recent literature data regarding the potential role of common and rare inhered variants in predicting which CRC patients will benefit more from a specifically targeted drug administration.

Germline Polymorphisms in the Nuclear Receptors PXR and VDR as Novel Prognostic Markers in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer Patients Treated With FOLFIRI.

Nuclear receptors act as mediators of cancer-related inflammation and gene expression. They have a regulatory effect on genes encoding proteins related to drug adsorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. The aim of the present study was to highlight novel prognostic markers among polymorphisms in genes encoding for nuclear receptor proteins and inflammation-related cytokines in patients treated with a FOLFIRI regimen. This study included two independent cohorts comprising a total of 337 mCRC patients homogeneously treated with first-line FOLFIRI. Genotyping of 246 haplotype-tagging polymorphisms in 22 genes was performed using bead array technology. The NR1I2 (PXR)-rs1054190 and VDR-rs7299460 polymorphisms were significantly associated with patient overall survival (OS). A detrimental effect of the NR1I2 rs1054190-TT genotype on OS was observed in both the discovery and replication cohorts (HR = 6.84, P = 0.0021, q-value = 0.1278 and HR = 3.56, P = 0.0414, respectively). Patients harboring the NR1I2 rs1054190-TT genotype had a median OS of 9 months vs. 21 months in patients with C-allele (P < 0.0001 log-rank test). VDR rs7299460-T was consistently associated with a longer OS in both cohorts (discovery: HR = 0.61, P = 0.0075, q-value = 0.1535; replication: HR = 0.57, P = 0.0477). Patients with the VDR rs7299460-T allele had a median OS of 23 months compared to 18 months in those with the CC genotype (P = 0.0489, log-rank test). The NR1I2-rs1054190 polymorphism also had an effect on the duration of progression-free survival, consistent with the effect observed on OS. Two novel prognostic markers for mCRC treated with FOLFIRI were described and, if validated by prospective trials, have a potential application in the management of these patients.

FARMAPRICE: A Pharmacogenetic Clinical Decision Support System for Precise and Cost-Effective Therapy.

Pharmacogenetic (PGx) guidelines for the precise dosing and selection of drugs remain poorly implemented in current clinical practice. Among the barriers to the implementation process is the lack of clinical decision support system (CDSS) tools to aid health providers in managing PGx information in the clinical context. The present study aimed to describe the first Italian endeavor to develop a PGx CDSS, called FARMAPRICE. FARMAPRICE prototype was conceived for integration of patient molecular data into the clinical prescription process in the Italian Centro di Riferimento Oncologico (CRO)-Aviano Hospital. It was developed through a coordinated partnership between two high-tech companies active in the computerization of the Italian healthcare system. Introducing FARMAPRICE into the clinical setting can aid physicians in prescribing the most efficacious and cost-effective pharmacological therapy available.

The Genotype for DPYD Risk Variants in Patients With Colorectal Cancer and the Related Toxicity Management Costs in Clinical Practice.

Lack of information on the clinical utility of preemptive DPYD screening before fluoropyrimidine treatment is a major barrier preventing its use in clinical practice. This study aimed to define the association between DPYD variants and fluoropyrimidine-related toxicity management costs. A cost analysis was conducted on the toxicities experienced by 550 patients with colorectal cancer treated with fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy. Genotyping for DPYD*2A, DPYD*13, DPYDc. 2846A>T, DPYD-HapB3, and UGT1A1*28 was done retrospectively and did not affect patients' treatments. Carriers of at least one DPYD variant experienced higher toxicity management costs (€2,972; 95% confidence interval (CI), €2,456-€3,505) than noncarriers (€825; 95% CI, €785-€864) (P < 0.0001) and had a higher risk for toxicity requiring hospitalization (odds ratio, 4.14; 95% CI, 1.87-9.14). In patients receiving fluoropyrimidine/irinotecan, the incremental cost between DPYD variant and UGT1A1*28/*28 carriers and noncarriers was €2,975. This study suggests that the toxicity management costs during fluoropyrimidine-based therapy are associated with DPYD and UGT1A1*28 variants and supports the utility of genotyping.

Association of STAT-3 rs1053004 and VDR rs11574077 With FOLFIRI-Related Gastrointestinal Toxicity in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer Patients.

Pharmacogenomics has largely been applied to the personalization of irinotecan-based treatment, focusing mainly on the study of genetic variants in adsorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) genes. The transcriptional control of ADME gene expression is mediated by a set of nuclear factors responding to cancer-related inflammation, which could have pharmacological implications. The aim of the present study was to uncover novel genetic predictors of neutropenia and gastrointestinal toxicity risk among 246 haplotype-tagging polymorphisms in 22 genes encoding inflammation-related cytokines and transcriptional regulators of ADME genes. The study comprised overall more than 400 metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) patients treated with first-line FOLFIRI, grouped in a discovery and a replication cohorts. A concordant protective effect of STAT-3 rs1053004 polymorphism against the risk of grade 3-4 gastrointestinal toxicity was observed in both the cohorts of patients (OR = 0.51, p = 0.045, q = 0.521 and OR = 0.39, p = 0.043, respectively). VDR rs11574077 polymorphism was demonstrated to affect both irinotecan biliary index (BI) and glucuronidation ratio (GR) by a pharmacokinetic analysis. This effect was consistent with an increased risk of grade 3-4 gastrointestinal toxicity in the discovery cohort (OR = 4.46, p = 0.010, q = 0.305). The association was not significant in the replication cohort (OR = 1.44, p = 0.601). These findings suggest an effect of STAT-3 and VDR polymorphisms on FOLFIRI-related gastrointestinal toxicity. If prospectively validated as predictive markers, they could be used to improve the clinical management of mCRC.

Genetic biomarkers for hepatocellular cancer risk in a caucasian population.

AIM: To uncover novel genetic markers that could contribute to predicting hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) susceptibility in Caucasians. METHODS: The present retrospective case-control study compared genotype frequencies between a cohort of HCC cases and two, independent, HCC-free, age/sex-matched control groups. The HCC cohort comprised 192 homogeneous patients that had undergone orthotopic liver transplantation. The first control group comprised 167 patients that were matched to the HCC cohort for the percentage of hepatitis B (HBV) and/or hepatitis C (HCV) infections. A second control group included 192 virus-free, healthy individuals that were used to evaluate the generalizability of the identified predictive markers. All cases and controls were Caucasian. The three study populations were characterized with a panel of 31 markers derived from 21 genes that encoded key proteins involved in hepatocarcinogenesis-related pathways. The study end-point was to assess the association between genetic variants and HCC onset. RESULTS: Five genetic markers were identified as risk factors for HCC in high-risk patients infected with HBV/HCV. According to a dominant model, reduced HCC risk was associated with three polymorphisms: ERCC1 rs3212986 (OR = 0.46, 95%CI: 0.30-0.71, P = 0.0005), GST-P1 rs1138272 (OR = 0.41, 95%CI: 0.21-0.81, P = 0.0097), and CYP17A1 rs743572 (OR = 0.50, 95%CI: 0.31-0.79, P = 0.0032). Conversely, according to a recessive model, increased HCC risk was associated with two polymorphisms: XRCC3 rs1799794 (OR = 3.70, 95%CI: 1.02-13.39, P = 0.0461) and ABCB1 rs1128503 (OR = 2.06, 95%CI: 1.18-3.61, P = 0.0111). These associations remained significant in a subgroup analysis, where patients were stratified according to viral status (HBV- or HCV-positive serology). Two variants exhibited a serology-specific effect: ABCB1 rs1128503 (OR = 4.18, 95%CI: 1.55-11.29, P = 0.0048) showed an effect in the HBV-positive subgroup; and ERCC1 rs3212986 (OR = 0.33, 95%CI: 0.18-0.60, P = 0.0003) showed an effect in the HCV-positive subgroup. Among the five markers identified, ERCC1 rs3212986 (OR = 0.43, P < 0.0001) and CYP17A1 rs743572 (OR = 0.73, P = 0.0310) had a different distribution in patients with HCC compared to healthy individuals. With a recursive partitioning approach, we also demonstrated that significant gene-gene interactions between ERCC1 rs3212986, CYP17A1 rs743572, GST-P1 rs1138272, and the previously described UGT1A7*3 predictive marker, played a role in the complex trait of HCC susceptibility. CONCLUSION: We identified five polymorphisms and interactions that contributed crucially to predicting HCC risk. These findings represented an important step towards improving HCC diagnosis and management.

Pharmacogenomics of Targeted Agents for Personalization of Colorectal Cancer Treatment.

The use of targeted agents in the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC) has improved patient outcomes. Anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (anti-EGFR) agents (cetuximab and panitumumab) and antiangiogenic molecules (bevacizumab, regorafeninb, ramucirumab, and aflibercept) have been successfully integrated into clinical practice. Other drugs have been designed to target additional deregulated pathways in CRC, such as MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)/PI3K-AKT (phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase-AKT serine/threonine kinase)/mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin), HER-2 and 3 ( human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 and -3), and BRAF. A major issue with targeted treatment is early identification of patients with primary or secondary drug resistance. Pharmacogenomic research has demonstrated its value in this field, highlighting some tumor mutations that could discriminate responders from non-responders. The tumor genetic profile of the RAS/RAF pathway is needed before treatment with anti-EGFR agents; mutations in EGFR pathway genes have also been explored in relation to antiangiogenic molecules although further data are required prior to their integration into clinical practice. The introduction of immunotherapy has paved the way for a new generation of predictive markers, including genome-wide assessment of the tumor landscape. Furthermore, the development of next generation sequencing technology and non-invasive approaches to analyze circulating tumor DNA will make real-time monitoring of the tumor pharmacogenomic markers possible in the clinical routine, rendering precision medicine available to every patient.