Imaging of Neuroendocrine Neoplasms; Principles of Treatment Strategies. What Referring Clinicians Want to Know.

ABSTRACT: Neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are a diverse group of tumors that express neuroendocrine markers and primarily affect the lungs and digestive system. The incidence of NENs has increased over time due to advancements in imaging and diagnostic techniques. Effective management of NENs requires a multidisciplinary approach, considering factors such as tumor location, grade, stage, symptoms, and imaging findings. Treatment strategies vary depending on the specific subtype of NEN. In this review, we will focus on treatment strategies and therapies including the information relevant to clinicians in order to undertake optimal management and treatment decisions, the implications of different therapies on imaging, and how to ascertain their possible complications and treatment effects.

An Illustrated Review of the Recent 2019 World Health Organization Classification of Neuroendocrine Neoplasms: A Radiologic and Pathologic Correlation.

ABSTRACT: Recent advances in molecular pathology and an improved understanding of the etiology of neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) have given rise to an updated World Health Organization classification. Since gastroenteropancreatic NENs (GEP-NENs) are the most common forms of NENs and their incidence has been increasing constantly, they will be the focus of our attention. Here, we review the findings at the foundation of the new classification system, discuss how it impacts imaging research and radiological practice, and illustrate typical and atypical imaging and pathological findings. Gastroenteropancreatic NENs have a highly variable clinical course, which existing classification schemes based on proliferation rate were unable to fully capture. While well- and poorly differentiated NENs both express neuroendocrine markers, they are fundamentally different diseases, which may show similar proliferation rates. Genetic alterations specific to well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors graded 1 to 3 and poorly differentiated neuroendocrine cancers of small cell and large-cell subtype have been identified. The new tumor classification places new demands and creates opportunities for radiologists to continue providing the clinically most relevant report and on researchers to design projects, which continue to be clinically applicable.

Adrenal Neoplasms: Lessons from Adrenal Multidisciplinary Tumor Boards.

The radiologic diagnosis of adrenal disease can be challenging in settings of atypical presentations, mimics of benign and malignant adrenal masses, and rare adrenal anomalies. Misdiagnosis may lead to suboptimal management and adverse outcomes. Adrenal adenoma is the most common benign adrenal tumor that arises from the cortex, whereas adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare malignant tumor of the cortex. Adrenal cyst and myelolipoma are other benign adrenal lesions and are characterized by their fluid and fat content, respectively. Pheochromocytoma is a rare neuroendocrine tumor of the adrenal medulla. Metastases to the adrenal glands are the most common malignant adrenal tumors. While many of these masses have classic imaging appearances, considerable overlap exists between benign and malignant lesions and can pose a diagnostic challenge. Atypical adrenal adenomas include those that are lipid poor; contain macroscopic fat, hemorrhage, and/or iron; are heterogeneous and/or large; and demonstrate growth. Heterogeneous adrenal adenomas may mimic ACC, metastasis, or pheochromocytoma, particularly when they are 4 cm or larger, whereas smaller versions of ACC, metastasis, and pheochromocytoma and those with washout greater than 60% may mimic adenoma. Because of its nonenhanced CT attenuation of less than or equal to 10 HU, a lipid-rich adrenal adenoma may be mimicked by a benign adrenal cyst, or it may be mimicked by a tumor with central cystic and/or necrotic change such as ACC, pheochromocytoma, or metastasis. Rare adrenal tumors such as hemangioma, ganglioneuroma, and oncocytoma also may mimic adrenal adenoma, ACC, metastasis, and pheochromocytoma. The authors describe cases of adrenal neoplasms that they have encountered in clinical practice and presented to adrenal multidisciplinary tumor boards. Key lessons to aid in diagnosis and further guide appropriate management are provided. © RSNA, 2023 Online supplemental material is available for this article. Quiz questions for this article are available through the Online Learning Center.

Lexicon for adrenal terms at CT and MRI: a consensus of the Society of Abdominal Radiology adrenal neoplasm disease-focused panel.

PURPOSE: Substantial variation in imaging terms used to describe the adrenal gland and adrenal findings leads to ambiguity and uncertainty in radiology reports and subsequently their understanding by referring clinicians. The purpose of this study was to develop a standardized lexicon to describe adrenal imaging findings at CT and MRI. METHODS: Fourteen members of the Society of Abdominal Radiology adrenal neoplasm disease-focused panel (SAR-DFP) including one endocrine surgeon participated to develop an adrenal lexicon using a modified Delphi process to reach consensus. Five radiologists prepared a preliminary list of 35 imaging terms that was sent to the full group as an online survey (19 general imaging terms, 9 specific to CT, and 7 specific to MRI). In the first round, members voted on terms to be included and proposed definitions; subsequent two rounds were used to achieve consensus on definitions (defined as ≥ 80% agreement). RESULTS: Consensus for inclusion was reached on 33/35 terms with two terms excluded (anterior limb and normal adrenal size measurements). Greater than 80% consensus was reached on the definitions for 15 terms following the first round, with subsequent consensus achieved for the definitions of the remaining 18 terms following two additional rounds. No included term had remaining disagreement. CONCLUSION: Expert consensus produced a standardized lexicon for reporting adrenal findings at CT and MRI. The use of this consensus lexicon should improve radiology report clarity, standardize clinical and research terminology, and reduce uncertainty for referring providers when adrenal findings are present.

Prevalence of Malignancy in Adrenal Nodules With Heterogeneous Microscopic Fat on Chemical-Shift MRI: A Multiinstitutional Study.

BACKGROUND. Homogeneous microscopic fat within adrenal nodules on chemical-shift MRI (CS-MRI) is diagnostic of benign adrenal adenoma, but the clinical relevance of heterogeneous microscopic fat is not well established. OBJECTIVE. This study sought to determine the prevalence of malignancy in adrenal nodules with heterogeneous microscopic fat on dual-echo T1-weighted CS-MRI. METHODS. We performed a retrospective study of adult patients with adrenal nodules detected on MRI performed between August 2007 and November 2020 at seven institutions. Eligible nodules had a short-axis diameter of 10 mm or larger with heterogeneous microscopic fat (defined by an area of signal loss of < 80% on opposed-phase CS-MRI). Two radiologists from each center, blinded to reference standard results, determined the signal loss pattern (diffuse, two distinct parts, speckling pattern, central loss, or peripheral loss) within the nodules. The reference standard used was available for 283 nodules (pathology for 21 nodules, ≥ 1 year of imaging follow-up for 245, and ≥ 5 years of clinical follow-up for 17) in 282 patients (171 women and 111 men; mean age, 60 ± 12 [SD] years); 30% (86/282) patients had prior malignancy. RESULTS. The mean long-axis diameter was 18.7 ± 7.9 mm (range, 10-80 mm). No malignant nodules were found in patients without prior cancer (0/197; 95% CI, 0-1.5%). Four of the 86 patients with prior malignancy (hepatocellular carcinoma [HCC], renal cell carcinoma [RCC], lung cancer, or both colon cancer and RCC) (4.7%; 95% CI, 1.3-11.5%) had metastatic nodules. Detected patterns were diffuse heterogeneous signal loss (40% [114/283]), speckling (28% [80/283]), two distinct parts (18% [51/283]), central loss (9% [26/283]), and peripheral loss (4% [12/283]). Two metastases from HCC and RCC showed diffuse heterogeneous signal loss. Lung cancer metastasis manifested as two distinct parts, and the metastasis in the patient with both colon cancer and RCC showed peripheral signal loss. CONCLUSION. Presence of heterogeneous microscopic fat in adrenal nodules on CS-MRI indicates a high likelihood of benignancy, particularly in patients without prior cancer. This finding is also commonly benign in patients with cancer; however, caution is warranted when primary malignancies may contain fat or if the morphologic pattern of signal loss may indicate a collision tumor. CLINICAL IMPACT. In the absence of prior cancer, adrenal nodules with heterogeneous microscopic fat do not require additional imaging evaluation.

Hereditary and Sporadic Pheochromocytoma: Comparison of Imaging, Clinical, and Laboratory Features.

BACKGROUND. A considerable fraction of pheochromocytomas initially suspected to be sporadic, whether or not symptomatic, are a result of germline mutations. OBJECTIVE. The purpose of this article is to compare imaging features between hereditary and sporadic pheochromocytomas. METHODS. This retrospective study included 71 patients (39 women, 32 men; median age, 48 years) who underwent adrenal pheochromocytoma resection from January 2002 to October 2021 after preoperative CT or MRI. Two radiologists independently reviewed examinations to assess features of the largest resected pheochromocytoma. Interreader agreement was assessed by prevalence-adjusted bias-adjusted kappa coefficients; a third radiologist resolved discrepancies for further analysis. Genetic testing was used to classify pheochromocytomas as hereditary or sporadic and to classify hereditary pheochromocytomas by germline mutation clusters. Symptoms associated with pheochromocytomas and preoperative biochemical laboratory values were recorded. Groups were compared using Kruskal-Wallis, Fisher exact, and chi-square tests, and false-discovery rate-adjusted p values were computed to account for multiple comparisons. RESULTS. Hereditary pheochromocytoma (n = 32), compared with sporadic pheochromocytoma (n = 39), was associated with younger median age (38 vs 52 years, p = .001) and smaller median size (24 vs 40 mm, p < .001). Interreader agreement for CT and MRI features, expressed as kappa, ranged from 0.44 to 1.00. Hereditary and sporadic pheochromocytoma showed no difference in frequency of calcifications, hemorrhage, cystic change/necrosis, or macroscopic fat on CT, or in frequency of hemorrhage, cystic change/necrosis, macroscopic fat, or microscopic fat on MRI (p > .05). When combining CT and MRI, cystic change/necrosis was observed in 35% of hereditary versus 67% of sporadic pheochromocytomas (p = .10). Hereditary pheochromocytoma, compared with sporadic, had lower frequency of symptoms (31% vs 74%; p = .004) and lower 24-hour urinary normetanephrines (1.1 vs 5.1 times upper limits of normal, p = .006). Among hereditary pheochromocytomas, cystic change/necrosis (when assessable on imaging) was present in 18% and 45% of those with cluster 1 (n = 11) and cluster 2 (n = 21) germ-line mutations, respectively. CONCLUSION. Hereditary pheochromocytomas, compared with sporadic, are detected at a younger age and smaller size, produce lower 24-hour urinary normetanephrines, are less often symptomatic, and may less frequently show cystic change/necrosis. CLINICAL IMPACT. Imaging findings may complement clinical and biochemical features in raising suspicion for a previously unsuspected germline mutation in patients with pheochromocytoma.

Pilot study on the impact of F18-labeled thymidine PET/CT on gross tumor volume identification and definition for pancreatic cancer.

PURPOSE: Accurate target definition for radiation therapy planning in localized pancreatic cancer is critical, particularly when using strategies that omit elective coverage. Standard imaging modalities such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging, and endoscopic ultrasound have limited concordance with pathologic evaluation. Biologic imaging with [F18]-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)-positron emission tomography (PET) can also be difficult to interpret because increased activity is indicative of increased glucose metabolism, rather than cellular proliferation. [F18]-3'-deoxy-3'-fluorothymidine labeled thymidine (FLT) is a proliferative marker which exploits the expression of pyrimidine-metabolizing enzymes. We evaluate the impact of FLT-PET on pancreatic target definition for radiation planning. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Patients with biopsy-proven, newly diagnosed, untreated pancreatic adenocarcinoma were enrolled on an institutional review board-approved prospective study. Patients were injected with FLT and scanned 20 to 30 minutes later. Two physicians (referred to as observer 1 and observer 2) independently contoured the gross tumor volume (GTV) and involved nodes on CT scan only and then again with the assistance of coregistered FLT-PET. Conformality index (CI), the ratio of the volumes of intersection and union, was used as the metric for volume comparison (where CI = 0 represents no overlap and CI = 1 represents perfect overlap). RESULTS: Nine patients were enrolled in this study. FLT-avidity was discerned in 8 of 9 patients. Average CT-GTV volume for observers 1 and 2 was 38.1 and 26.5 mL, respectively. Average FLT-GTV volume for observers 1 and 2 was 39.1 and 25.0 mL, respectively. For the 8 patients with FLT-avid tumors, addition of FLT data improved concordance of GTV definition between physicians in 6 of 8 tumors. Average CI for interobserver CT-GTV was 0.325. Addition of FLT-PET information improved the average CI to 0.400. CONCLUSIONS: FLT-PET improves interobserver concordance in GTV definition. Further studies will focus on verification of these findings, pathologic verification of the FLT-PET signal, and optimization of the FLT-PET signal threshold for autosegmentation.

Hybrid FDG-PET/MR compared to FDG-PET/CT in adult lymphoma patients.

PURPOSE: The goal of this study is to evaluate the diagnostic performance of simultaneous FDG-PET/MR including diffusion compared to FDG-PET/CT in patients with lymphoma. METHODS: Eighteen patients with a confirmed diagnosis of non-Hodgkin's (NHL) or Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) underwent an IRB-approved, single-injection/dual-imaging protocol consisting of a clinical FDG-PET/CT and subsequent FDG-PET/MR scan. PET images from both modalities were reconstructed iteratively. Attenuation correction was performed using low-dose CT data for PET/CT and Dixon-MR sequences for PET/MR. Diffusion-weighted imaging was performed. SUVmax was measured and compared between modalities and the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) using ROI analysis by an experienced radiologist using OsiriX. Strength of correlation between variables was measured using the Pearson correlation coefficient (r p). RESULTS: Of the 18 patients included in this study, 5 had HL and 13 had NHL. The median age was 51 ± 14.8 years. Sixty-five FDG-avid lesions were identified. All FDG-avid lesions were visible with comparable contrast, and therefore initial and follow-up staging was identical between both examinations. SUVmax from FDG-PET/MR [(mean ± sem) (21.3 ± 2.07)] vs. FDG-PET/CT (mean 23.2 ± 2.8) demonstrated a strongly positive correlation [r s = 0.95 (0.94, 0.99); p < 0.0001]. There was no correlation found between ADCmin and SUVmax from FDG-PET/MR [r = 0.17(-0.07, 0.66); p = 0.09]. CONCLUSION: FDG-PET/MR offers an equivalent whole-body staging examination as compared with PET/CT with an improved radiation safety profile in lymphoma patients. Correlation of ADC to SUVmax was weak, understating their lack of equivalence, but not undermining their potential synergy and differing importance.

Adrenal Imaging: Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Computed Tomography.

The adrenal glands are located superior to the kidneys and play an important role in the endocrine system. Each adrenal gland contains an outer cortex, responsible mainly for the secretion of androgens and corticosteroids, and an inner medulla, which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Here, we review the anatomy of the adrenal glands and explain the current imaging modalities that are most useful for the assessment of the various conditions--both benign and malignant--that can affect these glands. As adrenal lesions are often identified incidentally on cross-sectional imaging performed for other reasons, the management of such adrenal 'incidentalomas' is also discussed. In many cases, adrenal lesions have distinctive imaging features that allow for a full characterization with noninvasive techniques. In some cases, invasive studies such as adrenal vein sampling or adrenal biopsy become necessary. This review should give the reader a wide overview of how various imaging techniques can be useful in the assessment of adrenal pathology.

Images of pheochromocytoma in adrenal glands.

Pheochromocytomas are relatively rare tumors of the adrenal medulla. A wide spectrum of imaging findings has been described. The aim of this article is to describe the multimodality imaging features of pheochromocytomas including diagnostic pearls that can help differentiate them from other adrenal lesions and pitfalls to avoid.

Radiation Dose Consideration in Kidney Stone CT Examinations: Integration of Iterative Reconstruction Algorithms With Routine Clinical Practice.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of our study was to evaluate three commercially available iterative reconstruction (IR) algorithms-ASiR, iDOSE, and SAFIRE-and conventional filtered back projection (FBP) on image quality and radiation dose in kidney stone CT examinations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: During the 6-month study period, 684 unenhanced kidney stone CT examinations of consecutive adults were performed on 17 CT scanners (GE Healthcare [vendor 1], n = 12 scanners; Philips Healthcare [vendor 2], n = 2; Siemens Health-care [vendor 3], n = 3); these examinations were retrieved using dose-monitoring software (eXposure). A total of 347 kidney stone CT examinations were reconstructed using FBP, and 337 examinations were processed using IR (ASiR, n = 248; iDOSE, n = 50; SAFIRE, n = 39). The standard-dose scanning parameters for FBP scanners included a tube potential of 120 kVp, a tube current of 75-450 mA for vendor 1 and a Quality Reference mAs of 160-180 for vendor 3, and a slice thickness of 2.5 or 5 mm. The dose-modified protocol for the IR scanners included a higher noise index (1.4 times higher than the standard-dose FBP protocol) for vendor 1, a lower reference tube current-exposure time product for vendor 2 (150 reference mAs), and a lower Quality Reference mAs for vendor 3 (120 Quality Reference mAs). Three radiologists independently reviewed 60 randomly sampled kidney stone CT examinations for image quality, noise, and artifacts. Objective noise and attenuation were also determined. Size-specific dose estimates (SSDEs) were compared using ANOVA. RESULTS: Significantly higher subjective and objective measurements of image noise were found in FBP examinations compared with dose-modified IR examinations (p < 0.05). The radiation dose was substantially lower for the dose-modified IR examinations than the standard-dose FBP examinations (mean SSDE ± SD: 8.1 ± 3.8 vs 11.6 ± 3.6 mGy, respectively) (p < 0.0001), but the radiation dose was comparable among the three IR techniques (ASiR, 7.8 ± 3.1 mGy; iDOSE, 7.5 ± 1.9 mGy; SAFIRE, 7.6 ± 3.2 mGy) (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: The three IRs enable 20-33% radiation dose reduction in kidney stone CT examinations compared with the FBP technique without any image quality concerns. The radiation dose and image quality were comparable among these three IR algorithms.

Improving Concordance of MRI and PET/CT Interpretations With Retrospectively Coregistered MRI and PET/CT Data Sets.

This study evaluates if retrospective software-fused magnetic resonance imaging/positron emission tomography (MRI/PET) images can improve concordance of MRI and PET/computed tomography (CT) findings in the pelvis and improve overall lesion detection and characterization, as compared with independent side-by-side interpretation of MRI and PET data sets. Institutional review board approval was obtained for this retrospective study. Our institution's electronic medical record system was examined for pelvic MRI scans and whole-body (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose-PET/CT scans performed within a 2-month interval between January 2007 and June 2011. PET and MRI data sets for which there were discordant findings on original clinical reports were fused using software (Siemens TrueD, Erlangen, Germany). The fused MRI/PET data sets were reviewed by 2 radiologists for any evidence of metastatic disease in the pelvis. Interpretations were compared with original PET/CT and MRI reports (interpreted side by side), with pathology and imaging follow-up as the reference standard. Overall, 250 pairs of PET/CT and MRI scans were identified in 228 patients. A total of 57 discordant lesions were identified in 31 pairs of scans (12%) in 31 patients (14%). Software fusion resolved the discordance at 3 sites (5%) among 3 patients (10%), including 2 bone sites and a single nodal site. Software-fused MRI/PET is easy to perform and can increase the concordance rate of PET and MRI findings compared with side-by-side interpretation, thereby improving confidence in lesion characterization.

Assessment of Filtered Back Projection, Adaptive Statistical, and Model-Based Iterative Reconstruction for Reduced Dose Abdominal Computed Tomography.

PURPOSE: To compare standard of care and reduced dose (RD) abdominal computed tomography (CT) images reconstructed with filtered back projection (FBP), adaptive statistical iterative reconstruction (ASIR), model-based iterative reconstruction (MBIR) techniques. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In an Institutional Review Board-approved, prospective clinical study, 28 patients (mean age 59 ± 13 years ), undergoing clinically indicated routine abdominal CT on a 64-channel multi-detector CT scanner, gave written informed consent for acquisition of an additional RD (<1 milli-Sievert) abdomen CT series. Sinogram data of RD series were reconstructed with FBP, ASIR, and MBIR and compared with FBP images of standard dose abdomen CT. Two radiologists performed randomized, independent, and blinded comparison for lesion detection, lesion margin, visibility of normal structures, and diagnostic confidence. RESULTS: Mean CT dose index volume was 10 ± 3.4 mGy and 1.3 ± 0.3 mGy for standard and RD CT, respectively. There were 73 "true positive" lesions detected on standard of care CT. Nine lesions (<8 mm in size) were missed on RD abdominal CT images which included liver lesions, liver cysts, kidney cysts, and paracolonic abscess. These lesions were missed regardless of patient size and types of iterative reconstruction techniques used for reconstruction of RD data sets. The visibility of lesion margin was suboptimal in (23/28) patients with RD FBP, (15/28) patients with RD ASIR, and (14/28) patients with RD MBIR compared to standard of care FBP images (P < 0.001). Diagnostic confidence for the assessment of lesions on RD images was suboptimal in most patients regardless of iterative reconstruction techniques. CONCLUSIONS: Clinically significant lesions (< 8 mm) can be missed on abdominal CT examinations acquired at a CT dose index volume of 1.3 mGy regardless of patients' size and reconstruction techniques (FBP, ASIR, and MBIR).

Preliminary results: prospective clinical study to assess image-based iterative reconstruction for abdominal computed tomography acquired at 2 radiation dose levels.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare image quality for abdominal computed tomographic (CT) images acquired at 200 and 50 mA s and reconstructed with image-based iterative reconstruction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this institutional review board-approved prospective study, 22 patients (mean [SD] age, 64.3 [14.4] years; male-female ratio, 12:10) gave informed consent for acquisition of additional abdominal CT images on 64-slice multi-detector CT (MDCT) (Siemens Definition Flash). Standard-dose images were acquired at 200 quality reference mA s, whereas low-dose images were acquired at 50 mA s (all series: 120 kV; 5-mm section thickness; pitch, 0.9:1). The low-dose images were reconstructed with a nonlinear 3-dimensional iterative image reconstruction (3D-IIR) (SafeCT; MedicVision, Tirat Carmel, Israel) (4 settings, namely, A1, A2, A3, and A4) and were assessed by 3 abdominal radiologists for lesion detection, image noise, and visibility of small structures. CATPHAN 500 was scanned at the respective doses to obtain noise spectral density and modulation transfer function. RESULTS: Subjective image noise was unacceptable at 50-mA s filtered back projection and improved to average in 50-mA s A1 and minimal or no noise in 50-mA s A4. However, the visibility of small structures was similar to standard-dose filtered back projection images on 50-mA s A2. Objective image noise was reduced to 66% for the 50-mA s 3D-IIR images (9.08 [2.3]/26.75 [6.8]). The modulation transfer function curve demonstrated resolution improvement in the low-dose images with the 3D-IIR technique, whereas the noise spectral density curve confirmed noise suppression in the 50-mA s 3D-IIR images. CONCLUSIONS: Three-dimensional iterative image reconstruction helps to lower image noise without affecting the visibility of small structures at "moderate" settings. Diagnostically acceptable abdominal CT examinations can be acquired at 75% lower-radiation dose with the help of the image-based iterative reconstruction technique.

PET and PET-CT imaging findings of peritoneal and omental involvement in patients with lymphoma.

A retrospective institutional-review-board-approved study was performed evaluating positron emission tomography (PET)-computed tomography (CT) imaging findings of peritoneal and omental involvement of lymphoma. Twelve patients were identified with a wide spectrum of imaging findings on PET-CT including but not limited to peritoneal thickening, ascites, and serosal involvement. Lymphoma is among the rare causes of malignant peritoneal or omental involvement. The most common manifestations of peritoneal lymphomatosis are peritoneal 2-[fluorine 18] fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose uptake with corresponding peritoneal thickening and nonobstructive serosal masses on CT.

Imaging-guided biopsy of (18)F-FDG-avid extrapulmonary lesions: do lesion location and morphologic features on CT affect the positive predictive value for malignancy?

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of our study was to analyze the effect of lesion location and morphologic appearance on CT on the positive predictive value (PPV) for malignancy of all extrapulmonary lesions that were (18)F-FDG avid on PET/CT and that were biopsied under imaging guidance. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between January 2004 and December 2010, 227 patients underwent imaging-guided biopsy of 231 PET-positive extrapulmonary lesions with diagnostic pathologic results. The PET PPV for malignancy was retrospectively calculated and stratified according to lesion location and morphologic appearance. RESULTS: The overall PET PPV for malignancy was 72%. Inflammatory processes accounted for the majority of benign biopsy results. Lesion location significantly affected the PPV (p < 0.001). Bone (96%) and liver (90%) lesions had significantly higher PPVs for malignancy compared with other locations, whereas lymph nodes (60%) had a significantly lower PPV for malignancy. Lesions that were morphologically suspicious and morphologically benign according to CT findings alone were associated with PPVs of 74% and 57%, respectively (p = 0.05). FDG-avid subcentimeter lymph nodes (n = 8) had a PPV for malignancy of 38%. CONCLUSION: Over half of PET-avid morphologically benign-appearing lesions and one third of PET-avid subcentimeter lymph nodes were found to be malignant at biopsy, suggesting that benign morphologic appearance alone should not preclude further workup of a PET-positive lesion. Biopsies of FDG-avid lesions in liver and bone yielded high rates of true malignancy, whereas biopsies of lymph nodes yielded a lower rate of malignancy compared with other lesion locations.

ACR appropriateness criteria jaundice.

A fundamental consideration in the workup of a jaundiced patient is the pretest probability of mechanical obstruction. Ultrasound is the first-line modality to exclude biliary tract obstruction. When mechanical obstruction is present, additional imaging with CT or MRI can clarify etiology, define level of obstruction, stage disease, and guide intervention. When mechanical obstruction is absent, additional imaging can evaluate liver parenchyma for fat and iron deposition and help direct biopsy in cases where underlying parenchymal disease or mass is found. Imaging techniques are reviewed for the following clinical scenarios: (1) the patient with painful jaundice, (2) the patient with painless jaundice, and (3) the patient with a nonmechanical cause for jaundice. The ACR Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed every 2 years by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and review include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer-reviewed journals and the application of a well-established consensus methodology (modified Delphi) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures by the panel. In those instances where evidence is lacking or not definitive, expert opinion may be used to recommend imaging or treatment.