RESUMO
It is estimated that in highly medicalised countries, median life expectancy for most newborns with cystic fibrosis now exceeds 70 years, approaching that of the general population. However, socio-economic disparities between countries continue to have a devastating impact on the prognosis of patients in Eastern Europe, Africa, India and South America. In Morocco, very limited genetic data suggest that the prevalence of this disease is at least of the same order as in Belgium. But as it is not really recognised by the national health system, patients are denied access even to symptomatic treatment. As a result, their outcome is tragic, similar to what it was 60 years ago in the most medicalised countries. A pilot project for a first paediatric reference centre in Casablanca is currently being set up. If properly resourced, this project can only be a success and should be the first step on the road towards cystic fibrosis care in this country. In a very humble way, several Belgian stakeholders are trying to support this project.
Dans les pays les plus médicalisés, l'espérance de vie médiane de la plupart des nouveau-nés atteints de mucoviscidose excède aujourd'hui 70 ans et se rapproche de celle de la population générale. Ailleurs, en Europe de l'Est comme en Afrique, en Inde ou en Amérique du Sud, les disparités socio-économiques des pays continuent à impacter très durement le pronostic des patients. Au Maroc, des données génétiques très fragmentaires suggèrent que la prévalence de la mucoviscidose est au moins du même ordre qu'en Belgique. Mais la maladie n'y est pas réellement reconnue par le système de santé, de telle sorte que même le traitement symptomatique reste inaccessible aux patients et leur pronostic est tragique, similaire à ce qu'il était il y a 60 ans dans les pays les plus médicalisés. À Casablanca, le projet pilote d'un premier Centre pédiatrique de Référence est en train de se mettre en place. S'il bénéficie d'un support adéquat, ce projet ne peut être qu'un succès et doit constituer un tout premier pas sur le chemin vers une prise en charge des patients dans ce pays. Très modestement, plusieurs intervenants belges tentent d'y apporter leur soutien.
Assuntos
Fibrose Cística , Criança , Humanos , Recém-Nascido , Fibrose Cística/epidemiologia , Fibrose Cística/terapia , Projetos Piloto , Bélgica/epidemiologiaRESUMO
Inborn errors of the NF-κB pathways underlie various clinical phenotypes in humans. Heterozygous germline loss-of-expression and loss-of-function mutations in RELA underlie RELA haploinsufficiency, which results in TNF-dependent chronic mucocutaneous ulceration and autoimmune hematological disorders. We here report six patients from five families with additional autoinflammatory and autoimmune manifestations. These patients are heterozygous for RELA mutations, all of which are in the 3' segment of the gene and create a premature stop codon. Truncated and loss-of-function RelA proteins are expressed in the patients' cells and exert a dominant-negative effect. Enhanced expression of TLR7 and MYD88 mRNA in plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and non-pDC myeloid cells results in enhanced TLR7-driven secretion of type I/III interferons (IFNs) and interferon-stimulated gene expression in patient-derived leukocytes. Dominant-negative mutations in RELA thus underlie a novel form of type I interferonopathy with systemic autoinflammatory and autoimmune manifestations due to excessive IFN production, probably triggered by otherwise non-pathogenic TLR ligands.
Assuntos
Autoimunidade , Interferon Tipo I , Fator de Transcrição RelA , Humanos , Autoimunidade/genética , Células Dendríticas , Interferon Tipo I/genética , Interferon Tipo I/metabolismo , NF-kappa B/metabolismo , Receptor 7 Toll-Like/genética , Receptor 7 Toll-Like/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição RelA/genética , Fator de Transcrição RelA/metabolismoRESUMO
The International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) expert committee (EC) on Inborn Errors of Immunity (IEI) reports here the 2022 updated phenotypic classification, which accompanies and complements the most-recent genotypic classification. This phenotypic classification is aimed for clinicians at the bedside and focuses on clinical features and laboratory phenotypes of specific IEI. In this classification, 485 IEI underlying phenotypes as diverse as infection, malignancy, allergy, auto-immunity and auto-inflammation are described, including 55 novel monogenic defects and 1 autoimmune phenocopy. Therefore, all 485 diseases of the genetic classification are presented in this paper in the form of colored tables with essential clinical or immunological phenotype entries.
Assuntos
Hipersensibilidade , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência , Neoplasias , Humanos , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/genética , Fenótipo , GenótipoRESUMO
Since 2013, the International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) expert committee (EC) on Inborn Errors of Immunity (IEI) has published an updated phenotypic classification of IEI, which accompanies and complements their genotypic classification into ten tables. This phenotypic classification is user-friendly and serves as a resource for clinicians at the bedside. There are now 430 single-gene IEI underlying phenotypes as diverse as infection, malignancy, allergy, autoimmunity, and autoinflammation. We herein report the 2019 phenotypic classification, including the 65 new conditions. The diagnostic algorithms are based on clinical and laboratory phenotypes for each of the ten broad categories of IEI.
Assuntos
Imunidade/genética , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/genética , Autoimunidade/genética , Genótipo , Doenças Hereditárias Autoinflamatórias/genética , Humanos , Hipersensibilidade , FenótipoRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Inflammatory activation of CD8+ T cells can, when left unchecked, drive severe immunopathology. Hyperstimulation of CD8+ T cells through a broad set of triggering signals can precipitate hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), a life-threatening systemic inflammatory disorder. OBJECTIVE: The mechanism linking CD8+ T-cell hyperactivation to pathology is controversial, with excessive production of IFN-γ and, more recently, excessive consumption of IL-2, which are proposed as competing hypotheses. We formally tested the proximal mechanistic events of each pathway in a mouse model of HLH. METHODS: In addition to reporting a complete autosomal recessive IFN-γ receptor 1-deficient patient with multiple aspects of HLH pathology, we used the mouse model of perforin (Prf1)KO mice infected with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus to genetically eliminate either IFN-γ production or CD25 expression and assess the immunologic, hematologic, and physiologic disease measurement. RESULTS: We found a striking dichotomy between the mechanistic basis of the hematologic and inflammatory components of CD8+ T cell-mediated pathology. The hematologic features of HLH were completely dependent on IFN-γ production, with complete correction after loss of IFN-γ production without any role for CD8+ T cell-mediated IL-2 consumption. By contrast, the mechanistic contribution of the immunologic features was reversed, with no role for IFN-γ production but substantial correction after reduction of IL-2 consumption by hyperactivated CD8+ T cells. These results were complemented by the characterization of an IFN-γ receptor 1-deficient patients with HLH-like disease, in whom multiple aspects of HLH pathology were observed in the absence of IFN-γ signaling. CONCLUSION: These results synthesize the competing mechanistic models of HLH pathology into a dichotomous pathogenesis driven through discrete pathways. A holistic model provides a new paradigm for understanding HLH and, more broadly, the consequences of CD8+ T-cell hyperactivation, thereby paving the way for clinical intervention based on the features of HLH in individual patients.
Assuntos
Linfócitos T CD8-Positivos/imunologia , Inflamação/imunologia , Interferon gama/metabolismo , Subunidade alfa de Receptor de Interleucina-2/metabolismo , Coriomeningite Linfocítica/imunologia , Vírus da Coriomeningite Linfocítica/fisiologia , Linfo-Histiocitose Hemofagocítica/imunologia , Receptores de Interferon/deficiência , Animais , Consanguinidade , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Feminino , Humanos , Lactente , Ativação Linfocitária , Linfo-Histiocitose Hemofagocítica/diagnóstico , Linfo-Histiocitose Hemofagocítica/genética , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Modelos Imunológicos , Marrocos , Perforina/genética , Transdução de Sinais , Receptor de Interferon gamaRESUMO
Human inborn errors of IFN-γ immunity underlie mycobacterial diseases. We describe patients with Mycobacterium bovis (BCG) disease who are homozygous for loss-of-function mutations of SPPL2A. This gene encodes a transmembrane protease that degrades the N-terminal fragment (NTF) of CD74 (HLA invariant chain) in antigen-presenting cells. The CD74 NTF therefore accumulates in the HLA class II+ myeloid and lymphoid cells of SPPL2a-deficient patients. This toxic fragment selectively depletes IL-12- and IL-23-producing CD1c+ conventional dendritic cells (cDC2s) and their circulating progenitors. Moreover, SPPL2a-deficient memory TH1* cells selectively fail to produce IFN-γ when stimulated with mycobacterial antigens in vitro. Finally, Sppl2a-/- mice lack cDC2s, have CD4+ T cells that produce small amounts of IFN-γ after BCG infection, and are highly susceptible to infection with BCG or Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These findings suggest that inherited SPPL2a deficiency in humans underlies mycobacterial disease by decreasing the numbers of cDC2s and impairing IFN-γ production by mycobacterium-specific memory TH1* cells.
Assuntos
Ácido Aspártico Endopeptidases/genética , Ácido Aspártico Endopeptidases/metabolismo , Células Dendríticas/imunologia , Proteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Infecções por Mycobacterium/imunologia , Mycobacterium bovis/fisiologia , Mycobacterium tuberculosis/fisiologia , Células Th1/imunologia , Tuberculose/imunologia , Animais , Antígenos de Diferenciação de Linfócitos B/metabolismo , Células Cultivadas , Antígenos HLA/metabolismo , Antígenos de Histocompatibilidade Classe II/metabolismo , Humanos , Imunidade , Memória Imunológica , Lactente , Interferon gama/metabolismo , Linfadenopatia , Masculino , Proteínas de Membrana/genética , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Mutação/genética , Infecções por Mycobacterium/genética , VacinaçãoRESUMO
Heterozygosity for human signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) dominant-negative (DN) mutations underlies an autosomal dominant form of hyper-immunoglobulin E syndrome (HIES). We describe patients with an autosomal recessive form of HIES due to loss-of-function mutations of a previously uncharacterized gene, ZNF341 ZNF341 is a transcription factor that resides in the nucleus, where it binds a specific DNA motif present in various genes, including the STAT3 promoter. The patients' cells have low basal levels of STAT3 mRNA and protein. The autoinduction of STAT3 production, activation, and function by STAT3-activating cytokines is strongly impaired. Like patients with STAT3 DN mutations, ZNF341-deficient patients lack T helper 17 (TH17) cells, have an excess of TH2 cells, and have low memory B cells due to the tight dependence of STAT3 activity on ZNF341 in lymphocytes. Their milder extra-hematopoietic manifestations and stronger inflammatory responses reflect the lower ZNF341 dependence of STAT3 activity in other cell types. Human ZNF341 is essential for the STAT3 transcription-dependent autoinduction and sustained activity of STAT3.
Assuntos
Regulação da Expressão Gênica/imunologia , Síndrome de Job/genética , Fator de Transcrição STAT3/genética , Fatores de Transcrição/genética , Transcrição Gênica/imunologia , Adolescente , Adulto , Diferenciação Celular/genética , Diferenciação Celular/imunologia , Núcleo Celular/metabolismo , Consanguinidade , Citocinas/imunologia , Citocinas/metabolismo , Éxons/genética , Feminino , Genes Recessivos/genética , Genes Recessivos/imunologia , Homozigoto , Humanos , Imunoglobulina E/sangue , Imunoglobulina E/imunologia , Síndrome de Job/sangue , Síndrome de Job/imunologia , Mutação com Perda de Função , Contagem de Linfócitos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Linhagem , Regiões Promotoras Genéticas/genética , RNA Mensageiro/metabolismo , Fator de Transcrição STAT3/imunologia , Fator de Transcrição STAT3/metabolismo , Células Th17/imunologia , Células Th17/metabolismo , Células Th2/imunologia , Células Th2/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição/imunologia , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismo , Sequenciamento do Exoma , Adulto Jovem , Dedos de Zinco/genéticaRESUMO
Since the 1990s, the International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) PID expert committee (EC), now called Inborn Errors of Immunity Committee, has published every other year a classification of the inborn errors of immunity. This complete catalog serves as a reference for immunologists and researchers worldwide. However, it was unadapted for clinicians at the bedside. For those, the IUIS PID EC is now publishing a phenotypical classification since 2013, which proved to be more user-friendly. There are now 320 single-gene inborn errors of immunity underlying phenotypes as diverse as infection, malignancy, allergy, auto-immunity, and auto-inflammation. We herein propose the revised 2017 phenotypic classification, based on the accompanying 2017 IUIS Inborn Errors of Immunity Committee classification.
Assuntos
Alergia e Imunologia , Imunidade/genética , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/imunologia , Humanos , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/genética , Cooperação Internacional , FenótipoRESUMO
Naive CD4(+) T cells differentiate into specific effector subsets-Th1, Th2, Th17, and T follicular helper (Tfh)-that provide immunity against pathogen infection. The signaling pathways involved in generating these effector cells are partially known. However, the effects of mutations underlying human primary immunodeficiencies on these processes, and how they compromise specific immune responses, remain unresolved. By studying individuals with mutations in key signaling pathways, we identified nonredundant pathways regulating human CD4(+) T cell differentiation in vitro. IL12Rß1/TYK2 and IFN-γR/STAT1 function in a feed-forward loop to induce Th1 cells, whereas IL-21/IL-21R/STAT3 signaling is required for Th17, Tfh, and IL-10-secreting cells. IL12Rß1/TYK2 and NEMO are also required for Th17 induction. Strikingly, gain-of-function STAT1 mutations recapitulated the impact of dominant-negative STAT3 mutations on Tfh and Th17 cells, revealing a putative inhibitory effect of hypermorphic STAT1 over STAT3. These findings provide mechanistic insight into the requirements for human T cell effector function, and explain clinical manifestations of these immunodeficient conditions. Furthermore, they identify molecules that could be targeted to modulate CD4(+) T cell effector function in the settings of infection, vaccination, or immune dysregulation.
Assuntos
Diferenciação Celular/imunologia , Células Th1/imunologia , Células Th17/imunologia , Células Th2/imunologia , Antígenos de Diferenciação/genética , Antígenos de Diferenciação/imunologia , Diferenciação Celular/genética , Feminino , Humanos , Interleucina-10/genética , Interleucina-10/imunologia , Masculino , Mutação , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/genética , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/imunologia , Fator de Transcrição STAT3/genética , Fator de Transcrição STAT3/imunologia , Células Th1/citologia , Células Th17/citologiaRESUMO
Since their discovery in patients with autosomal dominant (AD) chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMC) in 2011, heterozygous STAT1 gain-of-function (GOF) mutations have increasingly been identified worldwide. The clinical spectrum associated with them needed to be delineated. We enrolled 274 patients from 167 kindreds originating from 40 countries from 5 continents. Demographic data, clinical features, immunological parameters, treatment, and outcome were recorded. The median age of the 274 patients was 22 years (range, 1-71 years); 98% of them had CMC, with a median age at onset of 1 year (range, 0-24 years). Patients often displayed bacterial (74%) infections, mostly because of Staphylococcus aureus (36%), including the respiratory tract and the skin in 47% and 28% of patients, respectively, and viral (38%) infections, mostly because of Herpesviridae (83%) and affecting the skin in 32% of patients. Invasive fungal infections (10%), mostly caused by Candida spp. (29%), and mycobacterial disease (6%) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, environmental mycobacteria, or Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccines were less common. Many patients had autoimmune manifestations (37%), including hypothyroidism (22%), type 1 diabetes (4%), blood cytopenia (4%), and systemic lupus erythematosus (2%). Invasive infections (25%), cerebral aneurysms (6%), and cancers (6%) were the strongest predictors of poor outcome. CMC persisted in 39% of the 202 patients receiving prolonged antifungal treatment. Circulating interleukin-17A-producing T-cell count was low for most (82%) but not all of the patients tested. STAT1 GOF mutations underlie AD CMC, as well as an unexpectedly wide range of other clinical features, including not only a variety of infectious and autoimmune diseases, but also cerebral aneurysms and carcinomas that confer a poor prognosis.
Assuntos
Candidíase Mucocutânea Crônica/genética , Estudos de Associação Genética , Mutação , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/genética , Adolescente , Adulto , Idoso , Criança , Pré-Escolar , Estudos de Coortes , Feminino , Predisposição Genética para Doença , Heterozigoto , Humanos , Lactente , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Fenótipo , Adulto JovemRESUMO
There are now nearly 300 single-gene inborn errors of immunity underlying phenotypes as diverse as infection, malignancy, allergy, auto-immunity, and auto-inflammation. For each of these five categories, a growing variety of phenotypes are ascribed to Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases (PID), making PIDs a rapidly expanding field of medicine. The International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) PID expert committee (EC) has published every other year a classification of these disorders into tables, defined by shared pathogenesis and/or clinical consequences. In 2013, the IUIS committee also proposed a more user-friendly, phenotypic classification, based on the selection of key phenotypes at the bedside. We herein propose the revised figures, based on the accompanying 2015 IUIS PID EC classification.
Assuntos
Hipersensibilidade/imunologia , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/imunologia , Infecções/imunologia , Inflamação/imunologia , Neoplasias/imunologia , Autoimunidade , Prova Pericial , Humanos , Imunidade/genética , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/classificação , FenótipoRESUMO
We report the updated classification of primary immunodeficiencies compiled by the Primary Immunodeficiency Expert Committee (PID EC) of the International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS). In the two years since the previous version, 34 new gene defects are reported in this updated version. For each disorder, the key clinical and laboratory features are provided. In this new version we continue to see the increasing overlap between immunodeficiency, as manifested by infection and/or malignancy, and immune dysregulation, as manifested by auto-inflammation, auto-immunity, and/or allergy. There is also an increased number of genetic defects that lead to susceptibility to specific organisms which reflects the finely tuned nature of immune defense systems. This classification is the most up to date catalogue of all known and published primary immunodeficiencies and acts as a current reference of the knowledge of these conditions and is an important aid for the genetic and molecular diagnosis of patients with these rare diseases.
Assuntos
Doenças Autoimunes/imunologia , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/imunologia , Infecções/imunologia , Doenças Autoimunes/genética , Carcinogênese/genética , Carcinogênese/imunologia , Conferências de Consenso como Assunto , Medicina Baseada em Evidências , Prova Pericial , Predisposição Genética para Doença , Humanos , Imunidade/genética , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/classificação , Infecções/genética , Cooperação Internacional , Mutação/genéticaRESUMO
Autosomal recessive, complete TYK2 deficiency was previously described in a patient (P1) with intracellular bacterial and viral infections and features of hyper-IgE syndrome (HIES), including atopic dermatitis, high serum IgE levels, and staphylococcal abscesses. We identified seven other TYK2-deficient patients from five families and four different ethnic groups. These patients were homozygous for one of five null mutations, different from that seen in P1. They displayed mycobacterial and/or viral infections, but no HIES. All eight TYK2-deficient patients displayed impaired but not abolished cellular responses to (a) IL-12 and IFN-α/ß, accounting for mycobacterial and viral infections, respectively; (b) IL-23, with normal proportions of circulating IL-17(+) T cells, accounting for their apparent lack of mucocutaneous candidiasis; and (c) IL-10, with no overt clinical consequences, including a lack of inflammatory bowel disease. Cellular responses to IL-21, IL-27, IFN-γ, IL-28/29 (IFN-λ), and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) were normal. The leukocytes and fibroblasts of all seven newly identified TYK2-deficient patients, unlike those of P1, responded normally to IL-6, possibly accounting for the lack of HIES in these patients. The expression of exogenous wild-type TYK2 or the silencing of endogenous TYK2 did not rescue IL-6 hyporesponsiveness, suggesting that this phenotype was not a consequence of the TYK2 genotype. The core clinical phenotype of TYK2 deficiency is mycobacterial and/or viral infections, caused by impaired responses to IL-12 and IFN-α/ß. Moreover, impaired IL-6 responses and HIES do not appear to be intrinsic features of TYK2 deficiency in humans.
Assuntos
Síndrome de Job/etiologia , TYK2 Quinase/deficiência , Adolescente , Estudos de Casos e Controles , Criança , Pré-Escolar , Feminino , Humanos , Lactente , Interferon gama/metabolismo , Interleucina-10/farmacologia , Interleucina-12/metabolismo , Interleucina-12/farmacologia , Interleucina-23/farmacologia , Interleucina-6/farmacologia , Síndrome de Job/complicações , Síndrome de Job/genética , Leucócitos/efeitos dos fármacos , Leucócitos/metabolismo , Masculino , Mutação , Infecções por Mycobacterium/etiologia , Linfócitos T/metabolismo , Linfócitos T/patologia , TYK2 Quinase/genética , TYK2 Quinase/metabolismo , Viroses/etiologia , Adulto JovemRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Follicular helper T (TFH) cells underpin T cell-dependent humoral immunity and the success of most vaccines. TFH cells also contribute to human immune disorders, such as autoimmunity, immunodeficiency, and malignancy. Understanding the molecular requirements for the generation and function of TFH cells will provide strategies for targeting these cells to modulate their behavior in the setting of these immunologic abnormalities. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine the signaling pathways and cellular interactions required for the development and function of TFH cells in human subjects. METHODS: Human primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) resulting from monogenic mutations provide a unique opportunity to assess the requirement for particular molecules in regulating human lymphocyte function. Circulating follicular helper T (cTFH) cell subsets, memory B cells, and serum immunoglobulin levels were quantified and functionally assessed in healthy control subjects, as well as in patients with PIDs resulting from mutations in STAT3, STAT1, TYK2, IL21, IL21R, IL10R, IFNGR1/2, IL12RB1, CD40LG, NEMO, ICOS, or BTK. RESULTS: Loss-of-function (LOF) mutations in STAT3, IL10R, CD40LG, NEMO, ICOS, or BTK reduced cTFH cell frequencies. STAT3 and IL21/R LOF and STAT1 gain-of-function mutations skewed cTFH cell differentiation toward a phenotype characterized by overexpression of IFN-γ and programmed death 1. IFN-γ inhibited cTFH cell function in vitro and in vivo, as corroborated by hypergammaglobulinemia in patients with IFNGR1/2, STAT1, and IL12RB1 LOF mutations. CONCLUSION: Specific mutations affect the quantity and quality of cTFH cells, highlighting the need to assess TFH cells in patients by using multiple criteria, including phenotype and function. Furthermore, IFN-γ functions in vivo to restrain TFH cell-induced B-cell differentiation. These findings shed new light on TFH cell biology and the integrated signaling pathways required for their generation, maintenance, and effector function and explain the compromised humoral immunity seen in patients with some PIDs.
Assuntos
Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/imunologia , Subpopulações de Linfócitos T/imunologia , Linfócitos T Auxiliares-Indutores/imunologia , Tirosina Quinase da Agamaglobulinemia , Linfócitos B/imunologia , Ligante de CD40/genética , Diferenciação Celular/genética , Proliferação de Células/genética , Células Cultivadas , Humanos , Quinase I-kappa B/genética , Imunidade Humoral/genética , Síndromes de Imunodeficiência/genética , Memória Imunológica , Proteína Coestimuladora de Linfócitos T Induzíveis/genética , Interferon gama/genética , Interferon gama/metabolismo , Ativação Linfocitária , Mutação/genética , Proteínas Tirosina Quinases/genética , Receptores de Citocinas/genética , Fator de Transcrição STAT1/genética , Fator de Transcrição STAT3/genética , Transdução de Sinais/genética , Transdução de Sinais/imunologiaRESUMO
Inherited deficiency of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules impairs antigen presentation to CD4(+) T cells and results in combined immunodeficiency (CID). Autosomal-recessive mutations in the RFXANK gene account for two-thirds of all cases of MHC class II deficiency. We describe here the genetic, clinical, and immunologic features of 35 patients from 30 unrelated kindreds from North Africa sharing the same RFXANK founder mutation, a 26-bp deletion called I5E6-25_I5E6 + 1), and date the founder event responsible for this mutation in this population to approximately 2250 years ago (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1750-3025 years). Ten of the 23 patients who underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) were cured, with the recovery of almost normal immune functions. Five of the patients from this cohort who did not undergo HSCT had a poor prognosis and eventually died (at ages of 1-17 years). However, 7 patients who did not undergo HSCT (at ages of 6-32 years) are still alive on Ig treatment and antibiotic prophylaxis. RFXANK deficiency is a severe, often fatal CID for which HSCT is the only curative treatment. However, some patients may survive for relatively long periods if multiple prophylactic measures are implemented.