Malonyl-CoA is a conserved endogenous ATP-competitive mTORC1 inhibitor.

Cell growth is regulated by the mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), which functions both as a nutrient sensor and a master controller of virtually all biosynthetic pathways. This ensures that cells are metabolically active only when conditions are optimal for growth. Notably, although mTORC1 is known to regulate fatty acid biosynthesis, how and whether the cellular lipid biosynthetic capacity signals back to fine-tune mTORC1 activity remains poorly understood. Here we show that mTORC1 senses the capacity of a cell to synthesise fatty acids by detecting the levels of malonyl-CoA, an intermediate of this biosynthetic pathway. We find that, in both yeast and mammalian cells, this regulation is direct, with malonyl-CoA binding to the mTOR catalytic pocket and acting as a specific ATP-competitive inhibitor. When fatty acid synthase (FASN) is downregulated/inhibited, elevated malonyl-CoA levels are channelled to proximal mTOR molecules that form direct protein-protein interactions with acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1) and FASN. Our findings represent a conserved and unique homeostatic mechanism whereby impaired fatty acid biogenesis leads to reduced mTORC1 activity to coordinately link this metabolic pathway to the overall cellular biosynthetic output. Moreover, they reveal the existence of a physiological metabolite that directly inhibits the activity of a signalling kinase in mammalian cells by competing with ATP for binding.

Acidosis-induced regulation of adipocyte G0S2 promotes crosstalk between adipocytes and breast cancer cells as well as tumor progression.

Bidirectional interactions between cancer cells and their microenvironment govern tumor progression. Among the stromal cells in this microenvironment, adipocytes have been reported to upregulate cancer cell migration and invasion by producing fatty acids. Conversely, cancer cells alter adipocyte phenotype notably via increased lipolysis. We aimed to identify the mechanisms through which cancer cells trigger adipocyte lipolysis and evaluate the functional consequences on cancer progression. Here, we show that cancer cell-induced acidification of the extracellular medium strongly promotes preadipocyte lipolysis through a mechanism that does not involve lipophagy but requires adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) activity. This increased lipolysis is triggered mainly by attenuation of the G0/G1 switch gene 2 (G0S2)-induced inhibition of ATGL. G0S2-mediated regulation in preadipocytes affects their communication with breast cancer cells, modifying the phenotype of the cancer cells and increasing their resistance to chemotherapeutic agents in vitro. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the adipocyte-specific overexpression of G0S2 impairs mammary tumor growth and lung metastasis formation in vivo. Our results highlight the importance of acidosis in cancer cell-adipocyte crosstalk and identify G0S2 as the main regulator of cancer-induced lipolysis, regulating tumor establishment and spreading.

TSC1 binding to lysosomal PIPs is required for TSC complex translocation and mTORC1 regulation.

The TSC complex is a critical negative regulator of the small GTPase Rheb and mTORC1 in cellular stress signaling. The TSC2 subunit contains a catalytic GTPase activating protein domain and interacts with multiple regulators, while the precise function of TSC1 is unknown. Here we provide a structural characterization of TSC1 and define three domains: a C-terminal coiled-coil that interacts with TSC2, a central helical domain that mediates TSC1 oligomerization, and an N-terminal HEAT repeat domain that interacts with membrane phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs). TSC1 architecture, oligomerization, and membrane binding are conserved in fungi and humans. We show that lysosomal recruitment of the TSC complex and subsequent inactivation of mTORC1 upon starvation depend on the marker lipid PI3,5P2, demonstrating a role for lysosomal PIPs in regulating TSC complex and mTORC1 activity via TSC1. Our study thus identifies a vital role of TSC1 in TSC complex function and mTORC1 signaling.

Lipin-1, a Versatile Regulator of Lipid Homeostasis, Is a Potential Target for Fighting Cancer.

The rewiring of lipid metabolism is a major adaptation observed in cancer, and it is generally associated with the increased aggressiveness of cancer cells. Targeting lipid metabolism is therefore an appealing therapeutic strategy, but it requires a better understanding of the specific roles played by the main enzymes involved in lipid biosynthesis. Lipin-1 is a central regulator of lipid homeostasis, acting either as an enzyme or as a co-regulator of transcription. In spite of its important functions it is only recently that several groups have highlighted its role in cancer. Here, we will review the most recent research describing the role of lipin-1 in tumor progression when expressed by cancer cells or cells of the tumor microenvironment. The interest of its inhibition as an adjuvant therapy to amplify the effects of anti-cancer therapies will be also illustrated.

G3BPs tether the TSC complex to lysosomes and suppress mTORC1 signaling.

Ras GTPase-activating protein-binding proteins 1 and 2 (G3BP1 and G3BP2, respectively) are widely recognized as core components of stress granules (SGs). We report that G3BPs reside at the cytoplasmic surface of lysosomes. They act in a non-redundant manner to anchor the tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) protein complex to lysosomes and suppress activation of the metabolic master regulator mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) by amino acids and insulin. Like the TSC complex, G3BP1 deficiency elicits phenotypes related to mTORC1 hyperactivity. In the context of tumors, low G3BP1 levels enhance mTORC1-driven breast cancer cell motility and correlate with adverse outcomes in patients. Furthermore, G3bp1 inhibition in zebrafish disturbs neuronal development and function, leading to white matter heterotopia and neuronal hyperactivity. Thus, G3BPs are not only core components of SGs but also a key element of lysosomal TSC-mTORC1 signaling.

Propranolol sensitizes prostate cancer cells to glucose metabolism inhibition and prevents cancer progression.

Propranolol, a widely used non-selective beta-adrenergic receptor blocker, was recently shown to display anticancer properties. Its potential to synergize with certain drugs has been also outlined. However, it is necessary to take into account all the properties of propranolol to select a drug that could be efficiently combined with. Propranolol was reported to block the late phase of autophagy. Hence, we hypothesized that in condition enhancing autophagy flux, cancer cells should be especially sensitive to propranolol. 2DG, a glycolysis inhibitor, is an anti-tumor agent having limited effect in monotherapy notably due to induction of pro-survival autophagy. Here, we report that treatment of cancer cells with propranolol in combination with the glycolysis inhibitor 2DG induced a massive accumulation of autophagosome due to autophagy blockade. The propranolol +2DG treatment efficiently prevents prostate cancer cell proliferation, induces cell apoptosis, alters mitochondrial morphology, inhibits mitochondrial bioenergetics and aggravates ER stress in vitro and also suppresses tumor growth in vivo. Our study underlines for the first time the interest to take advantage of the ability of propranolol to inhibit autophagy to design new anti-cancer therapies.

Myoferlin controls mitochondrial structure and activity in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, and affects tumor aggressiveness.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death. Therapeutic options remain very limited and are based on classical chemotherapies. Energy metabolism reprogramming appears as an emerging hallmark of cancer and is considered a therapeutic target with considerable potential. Myoferlin, a ferlin family member protein overexpressed in PDAC, is involved in plasma membrane biology and has a tumor-promoting function. In the continuity of our previous studies, we investigated the role of myoferlin in the context of energy metabolism in PDAC. We used selected PDAC tumor samples and PDAC cell lines together with small interfering RNA technology to study the role of myoferlin in energetic metabolism. In PDAC patients, we showed that myoferlin expression is negatively correlated with overall survival and with glycolytic activity evaluated by 18F-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography. We found out that myoferlin is more abundant in lipogenic pancreatic cancer cell lines and is required to maintain a branched mitochondrial structure and a high oxidative phosphorylation activity. The observed mitochondrial fission induced by myoferlin depletion led to a decrease of cell proliferation, ATP production, and autophagy induction, thus indicating an essential role of myoferlin for PDAC cell fitness. The metabolic phenotype switch generated by myoferlin silencing could open up a new perspective in the development of therapeutic strategies, especially in the context of energy metabolism.

A Novel Physiological Glycosaminoglycan-Deficient Splice Variant of Neuropilin-1 Is Anti-Tumorigenic In Vitro and In Vivo.

Neuropilin-1 (NRP1) is a transmembrane protein acting as a co-receptor for several growth factors and interacting with other proteins such as integrins and plexins/semaphorins. It is involved in axonal development, angiogenesis and cancer progression. Its primary mRNA is subjected to alternative splicing mechanisms generating different isoforms, some of which lack the transmembrane domain and display antagonist properties to NRP1 full size (FS). NRP1 is further post-translationally modified by the addition of glycosaminoglycans (GAG) side chains through an O-glycosylation site at serine612. Here, we characterized a novel splice variant which has never been investigated, NRP1-Δ7, differing from the NRP1-FS by a deletion of 7 amino acids occurring two residues downstream of the O-glycosylation site. This short sequence contains two aspartic residues critical for efficient glycosylation. As expected, the high molecular weight products appearing as a smear in SDS-PAGE and reflecting the presence of GAG in NRP1-FS were undetectable in the NRP1-Δ7 protein. NRP1-Δ7 mRNA was found expressed at an appreciable level, between 10 and 30% of the total NRP1, by various cells lines and tissues from human and murine origin. To investigate the biological properties of this isoform, we generated prostatic (PC3) and breast (MDA-MB-231) cancer cells able to express recombinant NRP1-FS or NRP1-Δ7 in a doxycycline-inducible manner. Cells with increased expression of NRP1-Δ7 were characterized in vitro by a significant reduction of proliferation, migration and anchorage-independent growth, while NRP1-FS had the expected opposite "pro-tumoral" effects. Upon VEGF-A165 treatment, a lower internalization rate was observed for NRP1-Δ7 than for NRP1-FS. Finally, we showed that NRP1-Δ7 inhibited growth of prostatic tumors and their vascularization in vivo. This report identifies NRP1-Δ7 as a splice variant displaying anti-tumorigenic properties in vitro and in vivo, emphasizing the need to consider this isoform in future studies.

Lipin-1 regulates cancer cell phenotype and is a potential target to potentiate rapamycin treatment.

Lipogenesis inhibition was reported to induce apoptosis and repress proliferation of cancer cells while barely affecting normal cells. Lipins exhibit dual function as enzymes catalyzing the dephosphorylation of phosphatidic acid to diacylglycerol and as co-transcriptional regulators. Thus, they are able to regulate lipid homeostasis at several nodal points. Here, we show that lipin-1 is up-regulated in several cancer cell lines and overexpressed in 50 % of high grade prostate cancers. The proliferation of prostate and breast cancer cells, but not of non-tumorigenic cells, was repressed upon lipin-1 knock-down. Lipin-1 depletion also decreased cancer cell migration through RhoA activation. Lipin-1 silencing did not significantly affect global lipid synthesis but enhanced the cellular concentration of phosphatidic acid. In parallel, autophagy was induced while AKT and ribosomal protein S6 phosphorylation were repressed. We also observed a compensatory regulation between lipin-1 and lipin-2 and demonstrated that their co-silencing aggravates the phenotype induced by lipin-1 silencing alone. Most interestingly, lipin-1 depletion or lipins inhibition with propranolol sensitized cancer cells to rapamycin. These data indicate that lipin-1 controls main cellular processes involved in cancer progression and that its targeting, alone or in combination with other treatments, could open new avenues in anticancer therapy.