Discriminative Accuracy of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Screening Instruments in 3 Low- and Middle-Income Country Settings.

Importance: Most of the global morbidity and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) occurs in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), with significant economic effects. Objective: To assess the discriminative accuracy of 3 instruments using questionnaires and peak expiratory flow (PEF) to screen for COPD in 3 LMIC settings. Design, Setting, and Participants: A cross-sectional analysis of discriminative accuracy, conducted between January 2018 and March 2020 in semiurban Bhaktapur, Nepal; urban Lima, Peru; and rural Nakaseke, Uganda, using a random age- and sex-stratified sample of the population 40 years or older. Exposures: Three screening tools, the COPD Assessment in Primary Care to Identify Undiagnosed Respiratory Disease and Exacerbation Risk (CAPTURE; range, 0-6; high risk indicated by a score of 5 or more or score 2-5 with low PEF [<250 L/min for females and <350 L/min for males]), the COPD in LMICs Assessment questionnaire (COLA-6; range, 0-5; high risk indicated by a score of 4 or more), and the Lung Function Questionnaire (LFQ; range, 0-25; high risk indicated by a score of 18 or less) were assessed against a reference standard diagnosis of COPD using quality-assured postbronchodilator spirometry. CAPTURE and COLA-6 include a measure of PEF. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was discriminative accuracy of the tools in identifying COPD as measured by area under receiver operating characteristic curves (AUCs) with 95% CIs. Secondary outcomes included sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value. Results: Among 10 709 adults who consented to participate in the study (mean age, 56.3 years (SD, 11.7); 50% female), 35% had ever smoked, and 30% were currently exposed to biomass smoke. The unweighted prevalence of COPD at the 3 sites was 18.2% (642/3534 participants) in Nepal, 2.7% (97/3550) in Peru, and 7.4% (264/3580) in Uganda. Among 1000 COPD cases, 49.3% had clinically important disease (Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease classification B-D), 16.4% had severe or very severe airflow obstruction (forced expiratory volume in 1 second <50% predicted), and 95.3% of cases were previously undiagnosed. The AUC for the screening instruments ranged from 0.717 (95% CI, 0.677-0.774) for LFQ in Peru to 0.791 (95% CI, 0.770-0.809) for COLA-6 in Nepal. The sensitivity ranged from 34.8% (95% CI, 25.3%-45.2%) for COLA-6 in Nepal to 64.2% (95% CI, 60.3%-67.9%) for CAPTURE in Nepal. The mean time to administer the instruments was 7.6 minutes (SD 1.11), and data completeness was 99.5%. Conclusions and Relevance: This study demonstrated that screening instruments for COPD were feasible to administer in 3 low- and middle-income settings. Further research is needed to assess instrument performance in other low- and middle-income settings and to determine whether implementation is associated with improved clinical outcomes.

[Healthcare challenges for people with diabetes during the national state of emergency due to COVID-19 in Lima, Peru: primary healthcare recommendations]. / Los retos del cuidado de las personas con diabetes durante el estado de emergencia nacional por COVID-19 en Lima, Perú: recomendaciones para la atención primaria.

Patients diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus, who then become infected with SARS-CoV-2, are at greater risk of developing complications from COVID-19, which may even lead to death. Diabetes is a chronic condition that requires continuous contact with healthcare facilities; therefore, this type of patients should have regular access to medicines, tests and appointments with healthcare personnel. In Peru, care and treatment continuity have been affected since the national state of emergency due to COVID-19 began; because many healthcare facilities suspended outpatient consultations. The strategies presented in this study were developed by different Peruvian health providers in the pandemic context to ensure care continuity for people with diabetes. This article provides recommendations to strengthen primary healthcare, because it is the first level of healthcare contact for patients with diabetes.

Las personas con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 infectadas por SARS-CoV-2 tienen mayores riesgos de desarrollar COVID-19 con complicaciones y de morir como consecuencia de ella. La diabetes es una condición crónica en la que se requiere continuidad de cuidados que implican un contacto con los establecimientos de salud, pues deben tener acceso regular a medicamentos, exámenes y citas con personal de salud. Esta continuidad de cuidados se ha visto afectada en el Perú a raíz de la declaratoria del estado de emergencia nacional, producto de la pandemia por la COVID-19 pues muchos establecimientos de salud han suspendido las consultas externas. Este artículo describe algunas estrategias que han desarrollado los diferentes proveedores de salud peruanos en el marco de la pandemia para proveer continuidad del cuidado a las personas con diabetes y finalmente brinda recomendaciones para que reciban los cuidados que necesitan a través del fortalecimiento del primer nivel de atención, como el punto de contacto más cercano con las personas con diabetes.

Precios de medicamentos esenciales para el manejo y tratamiento de la COVID-19 en establecimientos farmacéuticos peruanos públicos y privados / Prices of essential drugs for management and treatment of COVID-19 in public and private Peruvian pharmacies

RESUMEN Objetivo: comparar los precios de venta de medicamentos esenciales para el manejo y tratamiento de la COVID-19 en establecimientos farmacéuticos peruanos públicos y privados. Además, estimar el costo por persona del tratamiento farmacológico para casos leves y severos. Materiales y métodos: estudio transversal con información reportada por establecimientos farmacéuticos públicos y privados. El precio de los medicamentos se presenta en medianas y se compararon usando la prueba no paramétrica de Kruskal-Wallis. Además, se estimó el costo por persona y asequibilidad para el tratamiento de casos leves y severos. Resultados: medicamentos para casos leves como azitromicina, hidroxicloquina, ivermectina y paracetamol tienen medianas de precios entre S/ 0,04 (US$ 0,011) y S/ 23,81 (US$ 6,71) en establecimientos públicos, mientras que los mismos medicamentos en establecimientos privados fluctúan entre S/ 1,00 y S/ 36,00. En promedio, los precios de los medicamentos en el sector privado son 11 veces los precios en el sector público. Los costos de tratamiento por persona en establecimientos públicos son más asequibles que en los privados, especialmente para los medicamentos para casos más severos. Los esquemas de tratamiento para casos leves requieren la inversión de entre uno a cuatro días de salario mínimo. Mientras que los tratamientos de casos severos pueden requerir, hasta 64 días de salario mínimo en establecimientos privados. Conclusiones: el tratamiento farmacológico para COVID-19 supone un gasto importante para el sistema de salud público y para las familias a través de gastos de bolsillo. Urge diseñar e implementar medidas regulatorias para mejorar el acceso a medicamentos a precios asequibles.

ABSTRACT Objective: to compare the sale price of essential drugs used in the management and therapy of COVID-19 in public and private pharmacies in Peru. Also, to assess the cost per person of drug therapy for both mild and severe cases. Materials and methods: this is a cross-sectional study using data reported by public and private pharmacies in Peru. Drug prices are presented as median values and they were compared using the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test. Also, costs per person and drug accessibility for treating mild and moderate cases were estimated. Results: drugs used when treating mild cases of COVID-19, such as azythromycin, hydroxichloroquine, ivermectin, and paracetamol had median prices between S/ 0.04 (US$ 0.011) and S/ 23.81 (US$ 6.71) in public pharmacies, while the same compounds cost between S/ 1.00 (US$ 0.28) and S/ 36.00 (US$ 10.15) in private pharmacies. On average, drug prices in private pharmacies are 11 times higher compared to those in public pharmacies. Costs for (COVID-19) therapy in public pharmacies are more accessible compared to those found in private pharmacies, particularly for drugs used for more severely affected patients. Therapy regimens for mild cases require spending 1 to 4 days of the minimum daily wages, while therapy for severe cases (of COVID-19) may require up to 64 days of the minimum daily wages in private pharmacies. Conclusions: pharmacological treatment for COVID-19 represents an important expense for the public health system and for families through out-of-pocket expenses. It is urgent to design and implement regulatory measures aiming to improve the access to drug therapy (for Covid-19) in order to have drugs sold at accessible prices.

Los retos del cuidado de las personas con diabetes durante el estado de emergencia nacional por COVID-19 en Lima, Perú: recomendaciones para la atención primaria / Healthcare challenges for people with diabetes during the national state of emergency due to COVID-19 in Lima, Peru: primary healthcare recommendations

RESUMEN Las personas con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 infectadas por SARS-CoV-2 tienen mayores riesgos de desarrollar COVID-19 con complicaciones y de morir como consecuencia de ella. La diabetes es una condición crónica en la que se requiere continuidad de cuidados que implican un contacto con los establecimientos de salud, pues deben tener acceso regular a medicamentos, exámenes y citas con personal de salud. Esta continuidad de cuidados se ha visto afectada en el Perú a raíz de la declaratoria del estado de emergencia nacional, producto de la pandemia por la COVID-19 pues muchos establecimientos de salud han suspendido las consultas externas. Este artículo describe algunas estrategias que han desarrollado los diferentes proveedores de salud peruanos en el marco de la pandemia para proveer continuidad del cuidado a las personas con diabetes y finalmente brinda recomendaciones para que reciban los cuidados que necesitan a través del fortalecimiento del primer nivel de atención, como el punto de contacto más cercano con las personas con diabetes.

ABSTRACT Patients diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus, who then become infected with SARS-CoV-2, are at greater risk of developing complications from COVID-19, which may even lead to death. Diabetes is a chronic condition that requires continuous contact with healthcare facilities; therefore, this type of patients should have regular access to medicines, tests and appointments with healthcare personnel. In Peru, care and treatment continuity have been affected since the national state of emergency due to COVID-19 began; because many healthcare facilities suspended outpatient consultations. The strategies presented in this study were developed by different Peruvian health providers in the pandemic context to ensure care continuity for people with diabetes. This article provides recommendations to strengthen primary healthcare, because it is the first level of healthcare contact for patients with diabetes.