[Outbreak of skin infections due to Staphylococcus aureus carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes in pupils and their relatives]. / Épidémie d'infections cutanées àStaphylococcus aureus porteur des gènes codant la leucocidine de Panton-Valentine en milieu scolaire et familial.

OBJECTIVES: The study objectives were to describe an outbreak of skin infections in school settings, caused by Staphylococcus aureus carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes (Sa PVL(+)), over a 2-year period. Nasal colonization prevalence was assessed in families where new skin infections occurred, despite a prevention and control strategy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A retrospective investigation of skin infections likely to be related to Sa and prospective monitoring and treatment of new infections occurring in pupils and their family members were implemented in October 2006, following the reporting of Sa PVL(+) abscesses and furuncles in a primary school. Additional nasal screening was performed in families where new skin infections occurred, after an initial systematic screening of Sa PVL(+) nasal carriers. RESULTS: On October 31, 2008, 53 patients, accounting for 30 households, had developed 69 skin infections, in four decreasing outbreaks. The cumulative incidence of a first skin infection was 34.6% in primary classes, 21.3% in nursery schools, and 6.5% in the pupils' family households. Several skin infections were reported in 13 households, and in one of them, all of the seven family members had developed at least one skin infection during follow-up. The estimated frequency of nasal colonization ranged from 14.1% to 19.5% according to successive nasal screenings. CONCLUSION: Early reporting of skin infection clusters is necessary to reinforce the effectiveness of hygiene and prevention measures, and thus limit the risk of a long-lasting outbreak.

[Occurrence of lead poisoning during follow-up of children at risk with initial screening lead blood levels below 100 microg/L]. / Risque de survenue d'une intoxication par le plomb lors du suivi d'enfants à risque dont la plombémie de primodépistage est inférieure à 100 microg/L.

BACKGROUND: Follow-up is recommended for children initially screened with a lead blood level below the threshold for lead poisoning of 10 microg/dL when they have one or more risk factors. At first, the frequency of a follow-up lead blood test was calculated in children at risk for lead poisoning. In second time, we calculated the rate of occurrence and independent factors for lead poisoning in the follow-up group. METHODS: Since 1992, the Greater Paris lead poisoning monitoring system (SSSIILF) has been systematically recording data on lead levels in blood tests conducted for screening and follow-up in Greater Paris. Children initially screened before the age of seven whose blood lead level was inferior to 10 microg/dL and who had one or more risk factors were selected. The association between qualitative variables and a follow-up lead blood test was compared using the Chi(2) test. For children given follow-up, the association between qualitative variables and occurrence of lead poisoning was compared using the Chi(2) test; independent factors for lead poisoning were estimated by logistic regression. RESULTS: A follow-up lead blood test was more frequent and the difference was statistically significant, for children with one or more of the following risk factors identified at the time of screening: home address in Seine Saint-Denis or central Paris, screened in mother/child healthcare centers (PMI) or through a private physician, a blood lead level 5 microg/dL on initial screening, young age (<24 months) at the time of screening and some others known risk factors. The rate of occurrence of lead poisoning during follow-up was 25.9% for children screened between 1992 to 1994 and decrease to 5.1% for children screened in 2004 to 2005 (p<0.001) and was lower in central Paris and Seine Saint-Denis than in other districts in Greater Paris (p<0.01). The rate of occurrence during follow-up, independent of known risk factors for lead poisoning (p<0.01), was higher for children screened before the age of two (p<0.01) and for children whose mothers were from Sub-Saharan Africa (p<0.01). CONCLUSION: It is essential to follow up children at risk with an initial lead blood level below 10 microg/dL, especially those initially screened before the age of 24 months. Local action on home environment could also be needed when the initial blood lead level is 5 microg/dL and more than one risk factor has been identified.

Follow-up of children suffering from lead poisoning or at risk of lead poisoning in Greater Paris, 1992--2002.

BACKGROUND: It is essential for children suffering from or at risk of lead poisoning to have regular follow-up, and specifically for their blood lead (Pb) levels to be monitored. The present study assessed the occurrence of late follow-up testing of blood lead levels in children in Greater Paris, and factors related to such delays. METHODS: Since 1992, the SSSIILF has been systematically recording data on lead levels in blood tests conducted for screening and follow-up in Greater Paris. For Pb greater or equal to 45 microg/dL (Group 4), a further blood lead test has to be done within three weeks. For levels of 25 microg/dL < or = Pb < 45 microg/dL (Group 3) and 10 microg/dL < or = Pb < 25 microg/dL (Group 2), a second test must be done within 6 months. For Pb less than 10 microg/dL combined with one or more risk factors (Group 1: children at risk of poisoning), a second test is required within 6 to 12 months. Children aged 1 to 6 years who were screened between 1992 and 2002 were selected. The occurrence of late follow-up testing was estimated, and the independent effect of each variable associated with a delay was measured using a logistic regression model. RESULTS: Delays in re-testing were reported for 66.9% of Group 4 children (n=356), 45.3% of Group 3 children (n=921), 74.1% of Group 2 children (n=5,466), and 88.7% of Group 1 children (n=15,612). In the three groups with Pb greater or equal to 10 microg/dL, there was better follow-up (i.e. less delay to re-testing) for children screened most recently, those whose initial blood lead test results were elevated, those who lived in sub-standard housing built before 1949, and those who lived in suburban districts of Paris. The delay was longer for children aged 4 to 6 compared to younger children. When the size of the group was large enough, these differences were significant. In Group 1, similar results were observed except for a home address in a suburban district. Furthermore, follow-up was better for children of Sub-Saharan African parents, children whose initial prescription had been issued by a "PMI" mother/child healthcare centre and children from large families. CONCLUSION: Despite substantial delays in carrying out follow-up blood lead level testing, these delays were shorter for the populations with the greatest exposure.

[Predictive value and sensibility of hospital discharge system (PMSI) compared to cancer registries for thyroïd cancer (1999-2000)]. / Valeur prédictive et sensibilité du programme de médicalisation des systèmes d'information (PMSI) par rapport aux registres des cancers: application au cancer de la thyroïde (1999-2000).

BACKGROUND: Cancer registries have a complete recording of new cancer cases occurring among residents of a specific geographic area. In France, they cover only 13% of the population. For thyroid cancer, where incidence rate is highly variable according to the district conversely to mortality, national incidence estimates are not accurate. A nationwide database, such as hospital discharge system, could improve this estimate but its positive predictive value and sensibility should be evaluated. METHODS: The positive predictive value and the sensitivity for thyroid cancer case ascertainment (ICD-10) of the national hospital discharge system in 1999 and 2000 were estimated using the cancer registries database of 10 French districts as gold standard. The linkage of the two databases required transmission of nominative information from the health facilities of the study. From the registries database, a logistic regression analysis was carried out to identify factors related to being missed by the hospital discharge system. RESULTS: Among the 973 standardized discharge charts selected from the hospital discharge system, 866 were considered as true positive cases, and 107 as false positive. Forty five of the latter group were prevalent cases. The predictive positive value was 89% (95% confidence interval (CI): 87-91%) and did not differ according to the district (p=0,80). According to the cancer registries, 322 thyroid cancer cases diagnosed in 1999 or 2000 were missed by the hospital discharge system. Thus, the sensitivity of this latter system was 73% (70-76%) and varied significantly from 62% to 85% across districts (p<0.001) and according to the type of health facility (p<0.01). CONCLUSION: Predictive positive value of the French hospital discharge system for ascertainment of thyroid cancer cases is high and stable across districts. Sensitivity is lower and varies significantly according to the type of health facility and across districts, which limits the interest of this database for a national estimate of thyroid cancer incidence rate.

[Iron supplementation associated with malaria prevention among pregnant women in Abidjan]. / Traitement martial associé à la prophylaxie du paludisme chez la femme enceinte à Abidjan.

BACKGROUND: Despite the demonstrated efficacy of iron supplements and malaria prevention, the effectiveness of antenatal care programs for prevention of anaemia (haemoglobin rate<11 g/dL) in pregnant women is low in West Africa. Apart from the issue of availability and despite low cost, the major reason evoked is the lack of motivation of pregnant women and health care professionals. In this study, iron supplements and malaria prophylactics were provided free of charge during pregnancy. The treatment was proposed at the first antenatal visit, with the objective of not interfering with routine practice of birth attendants and women in latter antenatal visits. METHODS: Haemoglobin rates were measured and Plasmodium falciparum tested for among pregnant women in four maternity units in Abidjan. The tests were carried out at inclusion during the first antenatal visit and during immediate post-partum in 631 pregnant women who delivered in one of the four wards. Considering the objective of the study, compliance was assessed for the month prior to delivery. RESULTS: Despite an habitual decrease in iron deficiency at the end of pregnancy, haemoglobin rates in the study population increased from 10.4 g/dL at inclusion to 10.9 g/dL during post-partum. Prevalence of anemia consequently decreased from 62.8% to 49.4% (p<0.01). A similar increase of 0.7 g/dL was observed among women stating a regular (57%) or irregular (36.9%) compliance with the protocol. A decrease of 0.4 g/dL (s.t.: 1.8 g/dL) was observed among women stating a lack of compliance with the protocol (5.6%). The prevalence of anaemia according to compliance was consequently 43.1%, 49.7% and 70.1% (p=0.02). Severe anaemia (<8 g/dL) at inclusion was an independent risk factor for post-partum anaemia although a 2.9 g/dL increase (s.t.: 2.0 g/dL) was observed in the latter (p<0.01). However, the 11 g/dL threshold was not reached. CONCLUSION: It is therefore important to reinforce the availability of treatments to prevent anaemia in pregnant women due to their demonstrated efficiency as a part of routine antenatal activities.

Prevalence and determinants of current contraceptive method use in a palm oil company in Cameroon.

The principal reasons given by African women for not using contraception include their lack of economic power and control over their choice of partner. An epidemiologic descriptive survey of a cross-section of the female personnel of a Cameroonian palm oil company (SOCAPALM) was carried out in August 1995, to evaluate the various determinants and level of use of various family planning methods in a well defined population of women in employment. An exhaustive list of all the households in the five villages of SOCAPALM was compiled and all women between 15 and 49 years of age who had lived on the palm oil plantation for at least a year were interviewed. The adjusted odds ratios showed that use of modern contraceptive methods was significantly associated with the woman having received secondary education, having more than three children, being the head of the household and, in cases where there was a man regularly present in the household, his approval of family planning. Recently receiving information (during the last month) about family planning was not identified by multivariate analysis as a significant factor affecting the decision to use modern or traditional contraception. The same factors were found to be associated with the use of traditional methods of contraception, but having had an illegal abortion was also associated with the use of such methods. Thus, the level of knowledge about family planning and the prevalence of contraceptive use was significantly higher for women living in industrial environments (such as SOCAPALM), than in the overall population of women in Cameroon. The economic power of the woman, the presence of a strong social reproductive health network, and the positive attitude of men and community leaders were the most important factors affecting the family planning decision of the women.

PIP: The prevalence and determinants of contraceptive usage were investigated in a cross-sectional study of female workers at a palm oil company in Kienke, Cameroon. All 385 women 15-49 years of age (mean age, 29.8 years) who had lived on the palm oil plantation for at least a year and were at risk of pregnancy were interviewed. 28% of respondents reported ever-use of modern contraception and 21% had used traditional methods; use rates at the time of interview were 10% and 16%, respectively. Multivariate analysis indicated use of modern contraceptive methods was significantly associated with a secondary education or higher, having more than three children, being the head of the household, and (if a man was present in the household) partner approval of family planning. These same factors, with the addition of a history of illegal abortion, were significant determinants of use of traditional methods. Receipt of family planning information in the previous month was not a significant determinant of use of either modern or traditional contraception. The higher prevalence of contraceptive use among women living in this industrial environment relative to women in other parts of Cameroon or in west and central Africa suggests the salience of economic power to women's contraceptive use patterns.

[Cofactors in the course of HIV infection]. / Les cofacteurs dans l'évolution de l'infection par le VIH.

Cohorts of patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and followed-up since their infection, have identified risk factors of progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The risk of progression increases with the subject's age at contamination by 40% for each decade. Other host factors such as certain HLA subtypes would be related to progression. Virus-related factors have also been described. Sexual or transfusional transmission from a highly immunodepressed subject increases the risk of progression in the infected subject. Progression is more rapid in male homosexuals than in heterosexuals, even after exclusion of Kaposi's syndrome. There has been little success in isolating co-infections which might explain this finding. The more rapid progression in homosexuals could be due to infection with particularly virulent strains or particular subtypes. Finally, progresion is more rapid when signs of primary infection are major or prolonged, an observation which probably results from a complex host-virus interaction. Behavioral factors occurring after contamination (pregnancy, continued intravenous drug abuse, tobacco, alcohol) have not been demonstrated until now to play a role in progression.

[Multicenter French cohort of adults with HIV infection. Description and course after 4 years of follow-up. SEROCO]. / Cohorte francaise multicentrique d'adultes infectés par le VIH. Description et évolution après 4 ans de suivi. SEROCO.

OBJECTIVES: A prospective multicentric epidemiological study (SEROCO) of subjects with a diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection was started on January 1, 1988 in order to better understand the natural history of HIV infection and factors related to outcome. Observations after 4 years of follow-up are reported here. METHODS: After authorization by the French national ethics committee and the national commission for personal freedom, 18 French centres included non-haemophiliac volunteers who were asymptomatic, had had non anti-HIV treatment and whose HIV positivity had been known less than 1 year at inclusion. These last three criteria were not required for patients whose precise date of contamination was known within a range of +/- 3 months. RESULTS: On July 15, 1992, there were 1453 infected subjects in the cohort (1063 males, 417 females; age range at inclusion 18-75 years; mean age 31.3 +/- 9.4). Globally, 2.7% of the subjects were symptomatic at inclusion. Mean CD4 lymphocyte count at inclusion was 508/mm3. Clinically, 51.5% of the patients had a history of sexually transmitted disease at inclusion. After 4 years (on July 15, 1992) mean follow-up was 28 +/- 12.9 months for a total of 3428 patient-years. Disease progression to stage IV was observed in 439 patients including 202 who developed the acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Among these 202 patients, 113 had died at the end-point of this report. The first manifestation of AIDS was Kaposi sarcoma in 44, pulmonary pneumocystosis in 38 and cerebral toxoplasmosis in 27. The probability of developing AIDS was calculated at 13.9% at 5 years, 27.7% at 7 years and 33.7% at 10 years. The probability of a CD4 count below 200/mm3 was 32.7, 55.6 and 67% at 5, 7 and 10 years respectively. For patients with a CD4 count below 200, the probability of developing AIDS was 18% at 1 year, 39% at 2 years and 51% at 3 years. CONCLUSIONS: SEROCO has been a most useful prospective epidemiological tool due to the diversity of the subjects included. The observed natural history of HIV infection will lead to specific research projects aimed at better understanding the disease process.

Effect of age and exposure group on the onset of AIDS in heterosexual and homosexual HIV-infected patients. SEROCO Study Group.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the influence of age at seroconversion and sexual exposure group on the progression of HIV disease. DESIGN: This multicentre prospective cohort study involved 443 subjects whose date of HIV infection was known to within +/- 1 year. Individuals whose sexual behaviour was exclusively heterosexual after HIV infection constituted the heterosexual group (n = 131). AIDS-free survival was compared with that of men (n = 312) infected through homosexual sex and who continued homosexual activity after HIV infection. They constituted the homosexual group. METHODS: The end-point was the onset of an AIDS-defining illness listed in the 1987 revised Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria. Using the Kaplan-Meier method, AIDS-free survival curves were plotted for three age categories (< 20, 20-39, > or = 40 years). A Cox model was used to quantify the effect of age and to assess the influence of exposure group on AIDS onset after adjustment for age. Because of the high incidence of Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) among homosexual men, a disease that can be an early AIDS-defining illness, multivariate analysis was performed with and without consideration of the occurrence of KS. RESULTS: Patients aged > or = 40 years at seroconversion progressed more rapidly to AIDS than younger patients (P < 0.006). When age was fitted as a continuous variable and adjusted for exposure group, the relative risk of developing AIDS by any time after seroconversion was 1.34 for a 10-year increase difference [P = 0.03; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.03-1.77]. After adjustment for age, the relative risk of developing AIDS (CDC criteria) was 2.42 (P = 0.008; 95% CI, 1.18-4.97) among the homosexual men (AIDS cases, n = 56). All cases of KS (n = 19) involved the homosexual group. Excluding KS as a first manifestation of AIDS, homosexual or bisexual subjects had a risk of AIDS of 1.92 (P = 0.07; 95% CI, 0.92-4.03) compared with heterosexual subjects. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of AIDS increases with age at seroconversion. The more rapid progression towards AIDS in the homosexual group than in the heterosexual group persisted after adjustment for age. Further studies are required to determine the possible role of repeated exposure to HIV or other pathogens acquired sexually.