[Unusual case of pseudotumoral hip injury due to gout: case report]. / Caso inusual de lesión pseudotumoral en cadera por gota: reporte de caso.

Background: Gout is known as arthropathy due to the deposit of monosodium urate crystals; This pathology comprises a set of clinical and radiographic tests in the context of the intra-articular presence of said crystals. It is a chronic disease associated with other comorbidities such as arterial hypertension, osteoarthritis, diabetes mellitus, etc. The case of a patient with gouty arthritis with consequent hip lesion with a pseudotumoral appearance difficult to diagnose is presented, in order to highlight the importance of this, as well as the appropriate follow-up and treatment for this chronic pathology. Clinical case: A 51-year-old male patient, with a history of hip osteoarthritis and gout. The symptoms and signs were pain in the right hip with an 8/10 on an analogue pain scale, associated with functional limitation characterized by reduced range of motion and impossibility of standing. Imaging studies are carried out which are suggestive of a tumor lesion at the proximal femur with malignant characteristics, for which a biopsy and subsequent histopathological diagnosis of gouty tophi is performed. Conclusions: Gout is a prevalent disease in the adult population, however, its infrequent joint location can result in a difficult diagnosis, so it is necessary not to rule out this entity and to carry out specific studies for its identification.

Introducción: se conoce como gota a la artropatía por depósito de cristales de urato monosódico. Esta patología comprende un conjunto de hallazgos clínicos y radiográficos en el contexto de presencia intraarticular de dichos cristales. Es una enfermedad crónica asociada a otras comorbilidades como: hipertensión arterial, osteoartrosis, diabetes mellitus, etc. Se presenta el caso de un paciente con artritis gotosa con consecuente lesión en cadera, con aspecto pseudotumoral de difícil diagnóstico, a fin de resaltar su importancia, así como el seguimiento y tratamiento oportunos para esta patología crónica. Caso clínico: paciente hombre de 51 años, con antecedentes de artritis gotosa; quien cursa con cuadro clínico de, aproximadamente, cuatro años de evolución, caracterizado por dolor en cadera derecha de intensidad 8/10 en escala análoga del dolor, sin irradiación, asociado a limitación funcional caracterizada por reducción de arcos de movilidad e imposibilidad para la bipedestación. Se realizan estudios imagenológicos los cuales son sugestivos de lesión tumoral a nivel de fémur proximal de características de malignidad, por lo cual se realiza biopsia y posterior diagnóstico histopatológico de tofos gotosos. Conclusiones: la gota es una enfermedad prevalente en la población adulta, sin embargo, la localización articular infrecuente puede resultar en un difícil diagnóstico, por lo que se requiere no descartar esta entidad y la realización de estudios específicos para su identificación.

Economic burden of liver disease in Colombia

Introduction: Liver diseases have a significant impact on global morbidity and mortality rates, primarily attributed to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. However, the true extent of their impact on patients, healthcare systems, and countries is often underestimated. Materials and methods: This descriptive, cross-sectional study aimed to determine the economic burden associated with premature deaths caused by cirrhosis and primary liver cancer. The economic assessment was conducted by analyzing potentially productive years of life lost (PPYLL) due to liver diseases in Colombia between 2009 and 2016. Results and conclusions: The total burden of liver disease accounted for 687,861 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Men experienced a higher number of years of life lost from mortality (YLL), while women had a greater number of years lived with a disability (YLD). The economic burden of deaths caused by cirrhosis and primary liver cancer exceeded USD 8.6 million, highlighting the urgency to enhance intervention strategies ranging from promotion and prevention to timely diagnosis and treatment.

Introducción: la enfermedad hepática representa una de las principales causas de morbimortalidad a nivel mundial, principalmente por cirrosis y hepatocarcinoma; sin embargo, se subestima su impacto para el paciente, sistema de salud y el país. Materiales y métodos: estudio descriptivo de corte transversal que determinó la carga económica asociada a las muertes prematuras por cirrosis y tumores primarios del hígado, mediante la valoración económica de los años productivos de vida potencialmente perdidos (APVPP) en Colombia y de enfermedad hepática en Colombia entre 2009 y 2016. Resultados y conclusiones: la carga total de enfermedad hepática representó 687,861 años de vida saludable perdidos ajustados por discapacidad (AVAD), los hombres con mayores años de vida perdidos por muerte prematura (APMP) y las mujeres con mayores años vividos con discapacidad (AVD). Las muertes por cirrosis y tumores primarios del hígado representan una carga económica que supera los 8,6 millones de dólares, lo cual refleja la necesidad de fortalecer las estrategias de intervención desde la promoción y prevención hasta el diagnóstico y tratamiento oportuno.

Analyses of Mortality and Prevalence of Cerebrovascular Disease in Colombia, South America (2014-2016): A Cross-Sectional and Ecological Study.

BACKGROUND: Stroke is the second cause of death and the first cause of disability worldwide. However, although numerous reports regarding stroke epidemiology in Latin America have been published, they differ widely in terms of employed methods and end points. This is the first of a series of articles that describes the epidemiology of stroke and other cerebrovascular diseases (CVD) in the nation, as well as their correlation with recognized risk factors and social variables. METHODS: Descriptive analyses were performed using the Colombian vital registration system and social security information system as primary data sources. Rates and ratios were calculated, corrected for under-registration, and standardized. Secondary analyses were made using data from national surveys and government organizations on hypertension, diabetes mellitus, sedentarism, obesity, tobacco and alcohol consumption, and unsatisfied basic needs. Factorial multivariate multiple regression analyses were performed to evaluate correlations. Concentration curves and indices were calculated to evaluate for inequities in the distribution of events. RESULTS: Global CVD had a national mortality rate and a prevalence ratio of 28 and 142 per 100,000 persons, respectively. Nontraumatic intracranial hemorrhage had the highest mortality rate (ie, 15 per 100,000), while cerebral infarction and transitory cerebral ischemia had the highest prevalence ratios (ie, 28 and 29 per 100,000, respectively). Hypertension and tobacco use were the most relevant risk factors for most of the simple and multiple models, and cerebral amyloid angiopathy and nonpyogenous intracranial venous thrombosis were the disease categories with the most socially unequal distribution of deaths and cases (ie, concentration indices of .34 and .29, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: CVDs are a cause for concern in Colombia and a marker of healthcare inequality and social vulnerability. Nationwide control of risk factors such as hypertension and tobacco use, as well as the design and conduct of public policy focused on the vulnerable and medically underserved regions and on standardizing mandatory CVD registries might ease its burden.

Efecto del tipo y del número de lavados en la eficacia de mosquiteros tratados con deltametrina de larga duración para el control de Aedes aegypti en Girardot, Colombia / Effect of the type and number of washes in the efficacy of long lasting insecticidal nets for Aedes aegypti control in Girardot, Colombia

Resumen Introducción. El uso de mosquiteros tratados con insecticida en fórmulas de larga duración ha demostrado resultados prometedores en el control de Aedes aegypti. Objetivo. Evaluar la eficacia de mosquiteros impregnados con deltametrina en una fórmula de larga duración para el control de A. aegypti en Girardot, Colombia, después de tres lavados. Materiales y métodos. Se hicieron bioensayos de eficacia de los mosquiteros contra A. aegypti silvestres después de utilizar los siguientes tres productos de lavado, siguiendo la metodología de la Organización Mundial de la Salud: detergente en polvo, detergente en polvo y blanqueador, y jabón de barra, todos utilizados hasta en 20 lavados. Resultados. El tipo de producto de lavado y el número de lavados afectaron significativamente la eficacia de los mosquiteros impregnados con deltametrina. El lavado con jabón de barra presentó el mayor efecto, pues en tan solo seis lavados la mortalidad bajó a 50 % (25/50), en contraste con 66 % (33/50 de mortalidad después del lavado con detergente en polvo y de 84 % (42/50) después del lavado con detergente y blanqueador. En cuanto al número de lavados, el jabón en barra también causó una mayor reducción de la eficacia: a 68 % con solo tres lavados. Conclusión. La eficacia de los mosquiteros impregnados con deltametrina de larga duración en el control de A. aegypti varió con el tipo de producto de lavado y el número de lavados, siendo el jabón en barra el que redujo su eficacia en mayor medida. Se requieren nuevos estudios para establecer la disminución en la concentración del insecticida entre lavados.

Abstract Introduction: The use of long lasting insecticidal materials has shown promising results in the control of Aedes aegypti. Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of long-lasting insecticidal nets (PermaNet®) for Aedes aegypti control after three washing treatments in the city of Girardot, Colombia. Materials and methods: Standard bioassays were conducted with the nets following the World Health Organization protocols using wild A. aegypti after three washing treatments: (1) Detergent powder, (2)detergent powder and bleach, and (3) bar soap, until completing 20 washes. Results: The type and number of wash treatments had a significant effect on net efficacy. Greater effects in the insecticide bioavailability were seen for the bar soap treatment. After six washes, mortality decreased by 50% (25/50), vs 66% (33/50) for the detergent powder and 84% (42/50) for the detergent powder and bleach treatments. Regarding the number of washes, the bar soap treatment reduced the efficacy to 68% after only three washes. Conclusion: The effectiveness of long-lasting insecticidal nets (PermaNet 2.0) for A. aegypti control varied in relation to the treatment and number of washes. The bar soap treatment resulted in the greatest reduction of mortality. Further studies on insecticidal reductions are needed under local conditions.

Seroprevalencia de la infección por dengue en los municipios de Armenia, Calarcá, La Tebaida y Montenegro en el departamento del Quindío, 2014 / Seroprevalence of dengue infection in the municipalities of Armenia, Calarcá, La Tebaida and Montenegro in Quindío, 2014

Resumen Introducción: El dengue representa un grave problema de salud pública para Colombia y, en el departamento del Quindío, afecta el 90 % de los municipios. Se necesitan estudios actualizados sobre la seroprevalencia en la población general para reforzar las acciones de salud pública. Objetivo: Determinar la seroprevalencia de la infección por dengue en barrios con alta incidencia de dengue en cuatro municipios del departamento del Quindío: Armenia, Calarcá, La Tebaida y Montenegro, en 2014. Materiales y métodos: Se hizo un estudio de prevalencia mediante muestreo probabilístico estratificado y bietápico. Se hizo una encuesta a 658 sujetos residentes del área urbana de los municipios seleccionados y se les tomó una muestra de sangre por venopunción para determinar anticuerpos IgG e IgM contra el virus del dengue. Resultados: La seroprevalencia de anticuerpos IgG en el Quindío fue de 89,4 %; en Armenia fue de 88,7 %, en Calarcá, de 81,5 %, en Montenegro, de 91,8 %, y en La Tebaida, de 97,8 %. La seroprevalencia de anticuerpos IgM en Quindío fue de 14,2 %; en Armenia, de 11,5 %, en Calarcá, de 13,0 %, en Montenegro, de 13,1%, y en La Tebaida, de 28,9 %. Conclusiones: Se evidenció una alta prevalencia de anticuerpos IgG e IgM en los cuatro municipios. En todos los grupos de edad se encontraron personas seropositivas para IgM, lo cual indicaría infección reciente. La seropositividad simultánea para IgM e IgG (12,9 %) puede indicar infección secundaria por otro serotipo del virus o una infección en los tres meses anteriores. Es necesario impulsar estrategias multisectoriales para el control de la transmisión del dengue en el Quindío.

Abstract Introduction: Dengue is a serious public health problem in Colombia; it is prevalent in 90% of the municipalities in Quindío. Studies on its seroprevalence are required to address public health interventions. Objective: To establish the seroprevalence of dengue infection in neighborhoods with high incidence in the municipalities of Armenia, Calarcá, La Tebaida and Montenegro, Quindío, in 2014. Materials and methods: We conducted a probabilistic, stratified, two-stage prevalence study. We interviewed 658 residents in the urban area of the selected municipalities. After they signed the informed consent, we took a blood sample to determine dengue IgG and IgM antibodies. Results: Seroprevalence of IgG in Quindío was 89,4%; in Armenia it was 88,7%, in Calarcá, 81,5%, in Montenegro, 91,8% and in La Tebaida 97,8%. IgM was 14, 2% in Quindío; in Armenia it was 11,5%, in Calarcá, 13,0%, in Montenegro, 13,1% and in La Tebaida, 28,9%. Conclusions: We found a high prevalence of both IgG and IgM in the four municipalities. We had positive results for IgM in all age groups, which suggests recent infection. We also found simultaneous seropositivity for IgG and IgM (12.9%), which may indicate infection by another serotype or presence of infection in the past three months. A multisectoral approach is necessary for dengue control in Quindío.

Case-case comparison of smoking and alcohol risk associations with Epstein-Barr virus-positive gastric cancer.

Helicobacter pylori is the primary cause of gastric cancer. However, monoclonal Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) nucleic acid is also present in up to 10% of these tumors worldwide. EBV prevalence is increased with male sex, nonantral localization and surgically disrupted anatomy. To further examine associations between EBV and gastric cancer, we organized an international consortium of 11 studies with tumor EBV status assessed by in situ hybridization. We pooled individual-level data on 2,648 gastric cancer patients, including 184 (7%) with EBV-positive cancers; all studies had information on cigarette use (64% smokers) and nine had data on alcohol (57% drinkers). We compared patients with EBV-positive and EBV-negative tumors to evaluate smoking and alcohol interactions with EBV status. To account for within-population clustering, multilevel logistic regression models were used to estimate interaction odds ratios (OR) adjusted for distributions of sex (72% male), age (mean 59 years), tumor histology (56% Lauren intestinal-type), anatomic subsite (61% noncardia) and year of diagnosis (1983-2012). In unadjusted analyses, the OR of EBV positivity with smoking was 2.2 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.6-3.2]. The OR was attenuated to 1.5 (95% CI 1.01-2.3) by adjustment for the possible confounders. There was no significant interaction of EBV status with alcohol drinking (crude OR 1.4; adjusted OR 1.0). Our data indicate the smoking association with gastric cancer is stronger for EBV-positive than EBV-negative tumors. Conversely, the null association with alcohol does not vary by EBV status. Distinct epidemiologic characteristics of EBV-positive cancer further implicate the virus as a cofactor in gastric carcinogenesis.

Descentralización y reforma: ¿cuál es su impacto sobre la incidencia de malaria en los municipios colombianos? / Decentralization and health system reform: What is their impact on malaria incidence in Colombian municipalities?

Introducción. Colombia es uno de los países de América Latina con mayor incidencia de malaria. El control de la malaria en el país se lleva a cabo en el marco de un programa descentralizado de seguridad social en salud, bajo la responsabilidad de departamentos y municipios. Objetivo. Evaluar el efecto de la descentralización en el contexto del Sistema General de Seguridad Social en Salud, sobre la incidencia de malaria en municipios colombianos. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio ecológico de tendencia en municipios que notificaron, al menos, cinco casos anuales de malaria en cinco de los siete años del periodo 1998 a 2004, en el cual se solicitó información sobre indicadores de descentralización, afiliación a la seguridad social en salud y casos de malaria a entidades nacionales y a secretarías departamentales y municipales de salud. Se evaluó el comportamiento de las tasas de malaria teniendo en cuenta si el municipio era certificado o no. Se analizaron las medidas repetidas utilizando la ecuación estimada generalizada. Resultados. La certificación (Incidence Rate Ratio, IRR=2,36; IC95% 1,57-3,56), la proporción de población con necesidades básicas insatisfechas (IRR=9,35; IC95% 3,66-23,89) y la proporción de población menor de 40 años (IRR=1,18; IC95% 1,13-1,23) fueron factores asociados con el incremento de la incidencia de malaria en municipios colombianos. Conclusiones. Los factores socioeconómicos y demográficos, además del estado de certificación, se presentan como factores de riesgo para malaria en los municipios colombianos.

Introduction. Colombia is one of the Latin-American countries with higher malaria incidence and its control is the responsibility of the departments and municipalities. Objective. To assess the effect of decentralization within the context of the Social Security Health System on the incidence of malaria in Colombian municipalities. Materials and methods. An ecological trend study was carried out in municipalities which reported at least five cases of malaria in 5 of the 7 years between 1998 and 2004. Information on indicators of decentralization of the municipalities, population with health insurance in either the subsidized or contributive regimes as well as incidence of malaria was requested from the health authorities of the departments and municipalities. Socioeconomic and demographic variables were also collected. The behavior of the malaria rates was assessed in relation to the decentralization status of the municipalities. A repeated measure analysis was performed using the generalized estimating equation. Results. The decentralization status of the municipality (IRR=2.36; 95%CI: 1.57-3.56), its proportion of unmet basic needs (IRR=9.35; 95%CI: 3.66-23.89) and of population younger than 40 years of age (IRR=1.8; 95%CI: 1.13-1.23) were associated with malaria incidence in Colombian municipalities. Conclusions. Decentralization status as well as socioeconomic and demographic factors are associated with increased malaria risk in Colombian municipalities.

Prospects for malaria elimination in non-Amazonian regions of Latin America.

Latin America contributes 1-1.2 million clinical malaria cases to the global malaria burden of about 300 million per year. In 21 malaria endemic countries, the population at risk in this region represents less than 10% of the total population exposed worldwide. Factors such as rapid deforestation, inadequate agricultural practices, climate change, political instability, and both increasing parasite drug resistance and vector resistance to insecticides contribute to malaria transmission. Recently, several malaria endemic countries have experienced a significant reduction in numbers of malaria cases. This is most likely due to actions taken by National Malaria Control Programs (NMCP) with the support from international funding agencies. We describe here the research strategies and activities to be undertaken by the Centro Latino Americano de Investigación en Malaria (CLAIM), a new research center established for the non-Amazonian region of Latin America by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Throughout a network of countries in the region, initially including Colombia, Guatemala, Panama, and Peru, CLAIM will address major gaps in our understanding of changing malaria epidemiology, vector biology and control, and clinical malaria mainly due to Plasmodium vivax. In close partnership with NMCPs, CLAIM seeks to conduct research on how and why malaria is decreasing in many countries of the region as a basis for developing and implementing new strategies that will accelerate malaria elimination.

Costo-efectividad de la colecistectomía laparoscópica y de la abierta en una muestra de población colombiana / Cost-effectiveness of laparoscopic versus open cholecystectomy

Introducción. La colecistectomía ha sido objeto de varios estudios clínicos y de costos a nivelmundial. Objetivo. Evaluar el costo-efectividad de la colecistectomía abierta y de la laparoscópica desde laperspectiva del tercer pagador. Materiales y métodos. Se llevó a cabo un estudio de costo-efectividad en dos hospitales de Bogotá. Se obtuvieron los datos de efectividad de las cirugías a partir de un estudio de cohortes, y se obtuvo enforma retrospectiva el tipo de colecistectomía y en forma prospectiva, el resultado. Se incluyeron 376 pacientes intervenidos por colecistitis o litiasis de mayo de 2005 a junio de 2006; 156 pacientes fueron intervenidos por colecistectomía abierta y 220 por laparoscopia. Los resultados que se analizaron fueron los siguientes: frecuencia de complicaciones, estancia hospitalaria, reincorporación a las labores cotidianas y duración de la cirugía. Los costos se recolectaron según el tipo de estudio económico y sólo se incluyeron los costos directos. Posteriormente, se planteó un estudio de costo-efectividad a un año desde la perspectiva del tercer pagador; se propuso un modelo de árbol de decisiones y se calcularon las razones de incremento de costo-efectividad para cada uno de los desenlaces propuestos. Resultados. Los resultados de la colecistectomía abierta frente a la laparoscópica fueron: OR ajustado de complicaciones: 2,02 (IC95% 0,94-4,37); conversión quirúrgica (tasa): 3,2%; estancia: 2,2 Vs. 1,6,p=0,003; reincorporación a cotidianidad: 32,5 Vs. 9,6, p<0,001; duración quirúrgica: 22 minutos (p<0,001) menor en la colecistectomía abierta; desde la perspectiva del tercer pagador, costo promedio: US$995 Vs. US$ 1.048; incremento del costo-efectividad: US$ 7,4 favoreciendo la laparoscópica; desde la perspectiva paciente, costo promedio: US$ 53.2 Vs. US$ 104,8; incremento del costo-efectividad: US$-7.3 favoreciendo la laparoscópica; cero mortalidad. La variable que más impactó tiene en la toma de decisiones en términos de costos es el costo del procedimiento quirúrgico. Conclusiones. Hubo mayor estancia hospitalaria en la colecistectomía abierta frente a la mayor duración quirúrgica en la laparoscópica; en el costo directo de la laparoscópica: menor para IPS y pacientes; y en costo-efectividad equiparable para ambos procedimientos.

Introduction. Cholecystectomy has been the subject of several clinical and cost comparison studies. Objective. The results of open or laparoscopy cholecystectomy were compared in terms of cost and effectiveness from the perspective of health care institutions and from that of the patients. Materials and methods. The cost-effectiveness study was undertaken at two university hospitals in Bogotá, Colombia. The approach was to select the type of cholecystectomy retrospectively and then assess the result prospectively. The cost analysis used the combined approach of micro-costs and daily average cost. Patient resource consumption was gathered from the time of surgery room entry to time of discharge. A sample of 376 patients with cholelithiasis/cystitis (May 2005-June 2006) was selected--156 underwent open cholecystectomy and 220 underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The following data were tabulated: (1) frequency of complications and mortality, post-surgical hospital stay, (2) reincorporation to daily activities, (3) surgery duration, (4) direct medical costs, (5) costs to the patient, and (6) mean and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. Results. Frequency of complications was 13.5% for open cholecystectomy and 6.4% for laparoscopic cholecystectomy (p=0.02); hospital stay was longer in open cholecystectomy than in laparoscopic cholecystectomy (p=0.003) as well as the reincorporation to daily activities reported by the patients (p<0.001). The duration of open cholecystectomy was 22 min longer than laparoscopic cholecystectomy (p<0.001). The average cost of laparoscopic cholecystectomy was lower than open cholecystectomyand laparoscopic cholecystectomy was more cost-effective than open cholecystectomy (US$ 995 vs. US$ 1,048, respectively). The patient out-of-pocket expenses were greater in open cholecystectomy compared to laparoscopic cholecystectomy (p=0.015). Mortality was zero. Conclusions: The open laparoscopy procedure was associated with longer hospital stays, where asthe cholecystectomy procedure required a longer surgical duration. The direct cost of the latter was lower for both for the health care institution and patients. The cost-effectiveness for both procedures was comparable.

Predictors of local malaria outbreaks: an approach to the development of an early warning system in Colombia

Risk factor surveillance is a complementary tool of morbidity and mortality surveillance that improves the likelihood that public health interventions are implemented in a timely fashion. The aim of this study was to identify population predictors of malaria outbreaks in endemic municipalities of Colombia with the goal of developing an early warning system for malaria outbreaks. We conducted a multiple-group, exploratory, ecological study at the municipal level. Each of the 290 municipalities with endemic malaria that we studied was classified according to the presence or absence of outbreaks. The measurement of variables was based on historic registries and logistic regression was performed to analyse the data. Altitude above sea level [odds ratio (OR) 3.65, 95 percent confidence interval (CI) 1.34-9.98], variability in rainfall (OR 1.85, 95 percent CI 1.40-2.44) and the proportion of inhabitants over 45 years of age (OR 0.17, 95 percent CI 0.08-0.38) were factors associated with malaria outbreaks in Colombian municipalities. The results suggest that environmental and demographic factors could have a significant ability to predict malaria outbreaks on the municipal level in Colombia. To advance the development of an early warning system, it will be necessary to adjust and standardise the collection of required data and to evaluate the accuracy of the forecast models.

[Cost-effectiveness of laparoscopic versus open cholecystectomy]. / Costo-efectividad de la colecistectomía laparoscópica y de la abierta en una muestra de población colombiana.

INTRODUCTION: Cholecystectomy has been the subject of several clinical and cost comparison studies. OBJECTIVE: The results of open or laparoscopy cholecystectomy were compared in terms of cost and effectiveness from the perspective of health care institutions and from that of the patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The cost-effectiveness study was undertaken at two university hospitals in Bogotá, Colombia. The approach was to select the type of cholecystectomy retrospectively and then assess the result prospectively. The cost analysis used the combined approach of micro-costs and daily average cost. Patient resource consumption was gathered from the time of surgery room entry to time of discharge. A sample of 376 patients with cholelithiasis/cystitis (May 2005-June 2006) was selected--156 underwent open cholecystectomy and 220 underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The following data were tabulated: (1) frequency of complications and mortality, post-surgical hospital stay, (2) reincorporation to daily activities, (3) surgery duration, (4) direct medical costs, (5) costs to the patient, and (6) mean and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. RESULTS: Frequency of complications was 13.5% for open cholecystectomy and 6.4% for laparoscopic cholecystectomy (p=0.02); hospital stay was longer in open cholecystectomy than in laparoscopic cholecystectomy (p=0.003) as well as the reincorporation to daily activities reported by the patients (p<0.001). The duration of open cholecystectomy was 22 min longer than laparoscopic cholecystectomy (p<0.001). The average cost of laparoscopic cholecystectomy was lower than open cholecystectomy and laparoscopic cholecystectomy was more cost-effective than open cholecystectomy (US$ 995 vs. US$ 1,048, respectively). The patient out-of-pocket expenses were greater in open cholecystectomy compared to laparoscopic cholecystectomy (p=0.015). Mortality was zero. CONCLUSIONS: The open laparoscopy procedure was associated with longer hospital stays, where as the cholecystectomy procedure required a longer surgical duration. The direct cost of the latter was lower for both for the health care institution and patients. The cost-effectiveness for both procedures was comparable.

Cobertura efectiva de las intervenciones en salud de América Latina y el Caribe: métrica para evaluar los sistemas de salud / Effective coverage of health interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean: metrics for the assessment of health systems performance

OBJETIVO: Medir la cobertura efectiva para once intervenciones de salud en nueve países de América Latina utilizando las encuestas de demografía y salud o registros administrativos que abarcan la salud infantil, de la mujer y el adulto. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se seleccionaron las intervenciones y se armonizaron definiciones y métodos de cálculo de acuerdo con la información disponible para lograr la comparabilidad entre países. RESULTADOS: Chile es el país con mejores indicadores de coberturas crudas y efectivas, seguido por México y Colombia, y existen brechas importantes entre regiones, departamentos o estados. CONCLUSIONES: La métrica de cobertura efectiva es un indicador sensible que relaciona la necesidad de las intervenciones en salud, su utilización y calidad, lo que permite valorar los programas de salud al aportar datos precisos de dónde y a quién deben dirigirse los recursos y esfuerzos nacionales para que los países alcancen los propósitos y metas planteados.

OBJECTIVE: To measure effective coverage for ll health interventions in Latin America including the children's, women's and adult health, as part of program evaluation. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Interventions were selected; the definitions and calculation methods were harmonized according to the information available to ensure comparability between countries. RESULTS: Chile has better indicators of crude and effective coverage followed by Mexico and Colombia.There are significant gaps between regions, counties or states. CONCLUSIONS: The health metric on effective coverage is a sensitive indicator that links three important aspects: Coverage of health interventions, use of health services, and access to such services. Effective coverage is a good tool to evaluate health programs performance, and also provides data of where and to whom the system should address national efforts and resources to achieve the purposes and goals set.

Prevalencia de sintomáticos respiratorios en instituciones prestadoras de servicios de salud de Bogotá, D.C., junio de 2005 a marzo de 2006 / Prevalence of respiratory symptomatic in health institutions of Bogotá, Colombia

Introducción. Una de las mayores dificultades en el control de la tuberculosis es la detección tardía de casos, lo que obedece, entre otros motivos, a la poca búsqueda activa de casos sintomáticos respiratorios entre los consultantes y al reducido número de baciloscopias ordenados por el personal de salud. Objetivo. Estimar la prevalencia de casos sintomáticos respiratorios entre usuarios de la red de prestadores de servicios de salud de Bogotá mayores de 15 años, y la proporción a quienes se les solicita baciloscopia de manera oportuna.Materiales y métodos. Se trató de una encuesta transversal en una muestra probabilística, estratificada, multietápica, de conglomerados sin reemplazo, de 113 instituciones de salud y 3.710 usuarios. Se hizo seguimiento telefónico y revisión de registros de laboratorio para saber a quiénes se les solicitó baciloscopia en la consulta médica. Resultados. La prevalencia de casos sintomáticos respiratorios en instituciones de salud de Bogotá entre junio de 2 005 y marzo de 2006 fue de 7,49% (IC95% 6,40-8,59), y fue mayor en instituciones públicas (9,48%) (IC95% 8,04-10,92), en instituciones de primer nivel (8,61%) (IC95% 7,40-9,82), en mayores de 60 años (15,79%) (IC95% 12,36-19,23) y en personas afiliadas al Sistema General de Seguridad Social en Salud (7,57%) (IC95% 6,42-8,72). No se solicitó baciloscopia al 47% de los casos sintomáticos respiratorios.Conclusiones. La proporción de casos sintomáticos respiratorios estimada en este estudio con alta precisión (menos de 2% de error estándar relativo), es la cifra más actualizada en Colombia y permite hacer inferencias para las instituciones prestadoras de salud de Bogotá, dada la expansión de la muestra. Se podrán ajustar las metas del programa de control de la tuberculosis en Bogotá, cuya base hasta ahora es un estudio de 1977 (prevalencia de 10%). Es importante sensibilizar al personal médico para la búsqueda de casos de tuberculosis mediante baciloscopias.

Introduction. One of the greatest challenges in tuberculosis control is the early detection of cases. Detection is hindered by low level of active search for respiratory symptoms by health consultants and the small number of tubercular smear tests ordered by health personnel. Objective. The prevalence of individuals with respiratory symptoms was estimated in Bogotá Health Service Institutions, along with the proportion of those receiving diagnostic baciloscopies (smear or culture tests). Materials and methods. A cross sectional survey was carried out in 113 health service institutions located in the city of Bogotá, involved 3,170 users and covered a 10-month period between June 2005 and March 2006. Sampling design was based on a probabilistic, stratified, multistage, cluster–without-replacement strategy. A telephone follow-up and review of laboratory registers was done to identify symptomatic individuals for whom baciloscopy was requested.Results. The prevalence of symptomatic individuals was 7.5% (95%CI 6.4-8.6%). A higher prevalence occurred in public institutions, 9.5% (95%CI 8.0-10.9%), in institutions of first level, 8.6% (95%CI 7.4-9.8), in persons ≥60 years of age 15.8% (95%CI 12.4-19.2%) and in health users with social security, 7.6% (95% CI 6.4-8.7%). In 47% of symptomatic cases, a baciloscopic procedures were not ordered. Conclusions. The study updated the prevalence of respiratory symptomatic individuals in Colombia and due to the large sample size (and small confidence interval), inferences can be generalized to the entire health service system in Bogotá. The current tuberculosis program goals in Bogotá require adjustment based on the current prevalence of 7.5% compared with a 1977 estimate of 10%.. The study recommends an awareness program for physicians to use TB diagnostic tests in suspect cases.

The world of malaria: a health educational experience in the Colombian Pacific coast / El mundo de la malaria: una experiencia educativa en salud en la costa pacífica colombiana

Objective: To describe the design, validation, and implementation of the education material The world of malaria: let´s learn to handle it in the community. Methods: The development of the educational material was carried out in the urban area of Buenaventura (main city in the Colombian Pacific coast) in 1995. The design was based on the results of a knowledge, beliefs, and practices study in the city. By using the PRECEDE- PROCEED MODEL strategy, community groups were brought together with the research team to design the materials. Results: The educational materials were designed according to cultural and ethnographic characteristics of the population studied. These materials are table games, comics, videotapes and cassettes, magazines, altogether in a black bag called "The world of malaria: let´s learn to handle it in the community". Conclusions: This innovative educational material shows that interventions in public health should be based on results from scientific projects, because control strategies are based on local realities.

Objetivo: Describir el proceso de diseño, validación e implementación de la estrategia educativa ®El mundo de la malaria¼. Métodos: La estrategia educativa se desarrolló con el modelo de promoción de la salud PRECEDE-PROCEED. Esta estrategia educativa se diseñó a partir de los resultados obtenidos en la investigación sobre conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas en malaria en la población de Buenaventura en 1995. Los grupos comunitarios, el grupo de investigación de la División de Salud de la Fundación FES y los expertos en elaboración de materiales educativos diseñaron la estrategia. Resultados: Se diseñó y validó un conjunto de materiales educativos acordes con las características culturales y etnográficas de los habitantes de la región. Los materiales educativos constan de juegos, formatos de diagnóstico y seguimiento para el control de la malaria, que se recopilan en un maletín llamado: "El mundo de la malaria: Aprendamos a manejarlo en comunidad". Conclusiones: El desarrollo e implementación de la estrategia educativa "El mundo de la malaria: Aprendamos a manejarlo en comunidad" muestra la importancia de las intervenciones en salud pública basadas en resultados de investigaciones, lo cual permite generar alternativas de intervención acordes con las realidades locales.

[Equity in access to treatment for breast cancer in Colombia]. / Equidad en el acceso al tratamiento para el cáncer de mama en Colombia.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate equity in access by comparing geographic, economic, and organizational barriers as well as authorization obstacles that women encounter depending on their affiliation with the social security health system. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A retrospective survey was conducted among women undergoing breast cancer treatment to determine differences and the degree of fairness in access to care according to their affiliation with the social security health system. RESULTS: Women affiliated with the subsidized social security health system as well as women living in rural areas have a greater probability to travel to another city (OR 2.40 IC95%;1.64-3.43 and OR 1.80 IC95%;1.04-3.06, respectively). Poor women without insurance have greater probability of having to pay for medications (OR 3.7 IC95%;2.15-6.44). CONCLUSIONS: Access to breast cancer treatment is inequitable and particularly detrimental to vulnerable populations.

Equidad en el acceso al tratamiento para el cáncer de mama en Colombia / Equity in access to treatment for breast cancer in Colombia

OBJETIVOS: Evaluar la equidad en el acceso al tratamiento para cáncer de mama y comparar las barreras geográficas, económicas y organizacionales y las autorizaciones que enfrentan las mujeres, de acuerdo con su afiliación a la seguridad social en salud. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Seguimiento retrospectivo a través de encuestas a mujeres bajo tratamiento para establecer la equidad y contrastar los obstáculos para acceder al tratamiento con objeto de determinar las diferencias relacionadas con su condición de afiliación a la seguridad social en salud. RESULTADOS: Es más probable que las afiliadas al régimen subsidiado y las mujeres de estratos pobres sin seguro deban desplazarse a otra ciudad para recibir tratamiento (RM= 2.40; IC95 por ciento: 1.64-3.43, y RM= 1.80; IC95 por ciento: 1.04-3.06, respectivamente). La probabilidad de que las mujeres pobres sin seguro deban pagar por los medicamentos es mayor (RM= 3.7; IC95 por ciento: 2.15-6.44). CONCLUSIONES: El acceso real al tratamiento para cáncer de mama en Colombia es inequitativo, dado que las mujeres más vulnerables enfrentan mayores barreras.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate equity in access by comparing geographic, economic, and organizational barriers as well as authorization obstacles that women encounter depending on their affiliation with the social security health system. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A retrospective survey was conducted among women undergoing breast cancer treatment to determine differences and the degree of fairness in access to care according to their affiliation with the social security health system. RESULTS: Women affiliated with the subsidized social security health system as well as women living in rural areas have a greater probability to travel to another city (OR 2.40 IC95 percent;1.64-3.43 and OR 1.80 IC95 percent;1.04-3.06, respectively). Poor women without insurance have greater probability of having to pay for medications (OR 3.7 IC95 percent;2.15-6.44). CONCLUSIONS: Access to breast cancer treatment is inequitable and particularly detrimental to vulnerable populations.

An ecosystemic approach to evaluating ecological, socioeconomic and group dynamics affecting the prevalence of Aedes aegypti in two Colombian towns / Aproximación ecosistémica para evaluar las relaciones entre ecología, factores socioeconómicos, dinámicas sociales y la presencia del dengue en dos ciudades de Colombia

This article focuses on the epidemiological methods and results of a global Ecohealth study that explored the complexity of the relationship between ecological, biological, economical, social and political factors and vector presence. The study was carried out in two dengue endemic areas of Colombia. A transdisciplinary team gathered quantitative and qualitative data. A survey in randomly sampled households was applied and, simultaneously, direct observation of potential breeding sites was carried out. Logistic regressions and qualitative techniques were used. Qualitative and quantitative data were compared using triangulation. The presence of low water containers increases seven-fold the risk of finding immature forms ofAedes aegypti in the household (OR = 7.5; 95 percentCI: 1.7-32.2). An inverse association between socioeconomic stratum and presence of the vector was identified (Low stratum OR = 0.9; 95 percentCI: 0.6-1.4; High stratum OR =0.4; 95 percentCI: 0.07-1.7). Water management is a complex social dynamic associated with the presence of Ae. aegypti. Dengue control is a challenge for public health authorities and researchers as they should address promotion and prevention strategies that take into account cultural, behavioral, socioeconomic and health factors.

Este artículo se enfoca en los métodos epidemiológicos y resultados de una investigación global en Ecosalud que exploró la complejidad de la relación entre factores ecológicos, biológicos, económicos, sociales y políticos y la presencia de Aedes aegypti. El estudio se llevó acabo en dos áreas endémicas de Colombia. Un equipo transdisciplinario recogió y analizó información, tanto cualitativa como cuantitativa. Se aplicó una encuesta en una muestra de casas escogidas aleatoriamente. Simultáneamente, se realizó observación directa de criaderos potenciales. La articulación entre los datos cuantitativos y cualitativos se efectuó mediante triangulación. La presencia de tanques bajos aumentó el riesgo siete veces (OR = 7,5; IC95 por ciento: 1,7-32,2). Se identificó una asociación inversa entre el estrato socioeconómico y la presencia del vector (Estrato bajo OR = 0,9; IC95 por ciento: 0,6-1,4; Estrato alto OR = 0,4; IC95 por ciento: 0,07-1,7). El manejo del agua es una dinámica social compleja, asociada con la presencia de Ae aegypti. El control de dengue se convierte en un reto para las autoridades en salud y para los investigadores, puesto que deben desarrollarse estrategias de prevención y promoción que tengan en cuenta aspectos culturales, socioeconómicos y de comportamiento.

An ecosystem perspective in the socio-cultural evaluation of dengue in two Colombian towns / Uma abordagem ecossistêmica à avaliação sócio-cultural da dengue em duas cidades da Colômbia

Despite extensive public health efforts, dengue is still a major health concern in Colombia. The objective of this study was to provide an ecosystem and cross-disciplinary perspective on the dengue situation in two Colombian towns. The article focuses on presenting the anthropological methodology and research findings. An interdisciplinary team gathered quantitative (cross-sectional), meteorological, entomological, and qualitative data (based on medical anthropology) through fieldwork and archival research. According to the qualitative data, dengue can be described as a point of convergence between public health policies, the affected population, the environment, and the social dynamics generated through this interaction. Dengue is illustrative as a disease, in that it has a negative impact on public health, but individuals in Colombia have learned to live and cope with it. Dengue prevalence and its on-going historical presence have made it part of everyday community life, viewed as a minor health issue.

Apesar dos esforços de saúde pública, a dengue continua sendo uma grande preocupação de saúde na Colômbia. O objetivo deste estudo é de fornecer uma perspectiva ecossistêmica e transdisciplinar em relação à situação da dengue em duas cidades colombianas. O foco principal do artigo é a apresentação da metodologia antropológica e dos achados da pesquisa. Uma equipe multidisciplinar coletou dados quantitativos (transversais), meteorológicos, entomológicos e qualitativos data (baseados na antropologia médica), através de trabalho de campo e pesquisa de arquivos. Com base nos dados qualitativos, a dengue pode ser descrita como ponto de convergência entre políticas de saúde pública, a população afetada, o meio ambiente e a dinâmica social gerada por essa interação. A dengue é um bom exemplo de uma doença com impacto negativo sobre a saúde pública, mas com a qual os indivíduos em um país como a Colômbia aprenderam a lidar e conviver. A prevalência da dengue e sua presença histórica persistente tornaram a doença parte da vida cotidiana da comunidade, vista como um problema de saúde menor.

Equidad en la detección del cáncer de seno en Colombia / Equity regarding early breast cancer screening according to health insurance status in Colombia

Objetivos Evaluar la equidad en la detección temprana del cáncer de seno, comparando el acceso real y la oportunidad de la mamografía según la condición de afiliación a la seguridad social en salud de la mujer. Métodos Se adelantó un seguimiento retrospectivo a mujeres en tratamiento por esta patología en Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Bucaramanga y Barranquilla entre enero de 2005 y junio de 2006 a quienes se les aplicó una encuesta personal para recoger información sobre el acceso real y la oportunidad de la mamografía como prueba de detección temprana. Para establecer diferencias según la condición de afiliación a la seguridad social en salud se calcularon OR con intervalos de confianza del 95 por ciento, ajustados a través de modelos de regresión logística múltiple y se evaluaron posibles interacciones a través del test de verosimilitudes. Resultados Comparadas con las afiliadas al régimen contributivo, tienen menor probabilidad de acceso real a una mamografía para detección temprana las afiliadas al régimen subsidiado (OR=0,46; IC95 por ciento=0,26-0,72) y las pobres sin seguro de salud (OR=0,36; IC95 por ciento=0,13-0,65). Además, el nivel educativo se asocia con el acceso real a esta prueba ya que, comparadas con las alfabetas, las analfabetas tienen menor probabilidad de usar una mamografía de detección (OR=0,13; IC95 por ciento=0,02-0,30). Finalmente, comparadas con las afiliadas al régimen contributivo, las afiliadas al régimen subsidiado tienen menor probabilidad de acceder oportunamente a la mamografía de detección temprana (OR=0,10; IC95 por ciento=0,04-0,41). Conclusiones El uso de una mamografía para detección temprana del cáncer de seno es inequitativo pues tienen menores probabilidades de hacerlo las mujeres más vulnerables de la escala social.

Objectives Evaluating equity regarding early breast cancer detection by comparing real access to and opportunity for mammography screening according to women's social health insurance status. Methods A retrospective follow-up study was conducted on women receiving breast cancer treatment in Bogotá, Cali, Medellin, Bucaramanga and Barranquilla between January 2005 and June 2006. A survey was carried out for collecting data about real access to and the opportunity of having mammography screening. OR and 95 percent confidence intervals were calculated (adjusted by multivariate logistical regression models) for establishing differences according to health insurance status. Possible interactions were investigated through verisimilarity log-like test. Results Women belonging to the contributory regime had a lower probability of real access to mammography screening for early detection of breast cancer than those affiliated to the subsidised regimen (OR=0,46; 0,26-0,72 95 percentCI) and poor uninsured women (OR=0,36; 0,13-0,65 95 percentCI). Educational level was also associated with real access to mammography, illiterate women having a lower probability of receiving mammography screening than literate women (OR=0,13; 0,02-0,30 95 percentCI). Women having government-subsidised health insurance had a lower probability of accessing timely mammography screening (OR=0,10; 0,04-0,41 95 percentCI). Conclusions : Mammography screening for the early detection of breast cancer is not equitable and such inequality particularly affects the most vulnerable women.

Toenail selenium levels and gastric cancer risk in Cali, Colombia.

To examine an association between selenium level and gastric cancer (GC) risk, a hospital-based case-control study was conducted in Cali, Colombia. Selenium concentrations in toenails were compared between 142 GC patients and 244 controls selected from hospitalized non-cancer patients. GC risk was lowest in the lowest quartile of selenium level and highest in the second highest quartile (age-, sex-, hospital-, and sampling-season-adjusted odds ratio [OR]: 5.9, 95% confidence interval: 2.8, 12.4). This association was not modified by either tumor location or Lauren's histological type. The magnitude of ORs was not affected by other diets that were significantly associated with GC risk. Since selenium levels were relatively high in cases and in controls, our results indicate that an inverse association between selenium level and GC risk may exist only among populations with low selenium levels.