COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy prevalence in Mexico: A systematic review and metanalysis.

Background: Vaccine hesitancy (VH) is a recognized threat to public health that undermines efforts to mitigate disease burden. This study aims to gather available evidence regarding COVID-19 VH in Mexico, estimate the prevalence of VH, and its determinants to inform policymaking in this country. Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic review of the MEDLINE literature, articles that estimated the prevalence of COVID-19 VH in Mexico were included in the analysis to obtain a pooled estimate. We used a binomial-normal model for meta-analysis of proportions (i.e., generalized linear mixed model) to perform the metanalysis. We then performed a narrative review of COVID-19 VH in Mexican subpopulations. Results: Seven studies met inclusion criteria. We estimated a pooled prevalence of COVID-19 VH of 16 % (95 % CI: 11-23 %) in Mexico. We found an association between VH and demographic characteristics, intrinsic vaccine factors, and beliefs. Subgroup analyses from specific studies suggested that patients with clinical conditions such as breast cancer or rheumatologic diseases had a higher prevalence of VH. Conclusions: VH is a highly complex and dynamic phenomenon in Mexico. Characterizing and understanding COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the Mexican population helps target future policy interventions to mitigate the spread and impact of infectious diseases. The implications of VH differ among groups that may be at higher risk of severe disease, underscoring the importance of prompt research among these groups as well as targeted interventions to address VH.

Laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis (LASIK) with a mechanical microkeratome compared to LASIK with a femtosecond laser for LASIK in adults with myopia or myopic astigmatism.

BACKGROUND: Laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis (LASIK) is a surgical procedure that corrects refractive errors. This technique creates a flap of the outermost parts of the cornea (epithelium, bowman layer, and anterior stroma) to expose the middle part of the cornea (stromal bed) and reshape it with excimer laser using photoablation. The flaps can be created by a mechanical microkeratome or a femtosecond laser. OBJECTIVES: To compare the effectiveness and safety of mechanical microkeratome versus femtosecond laser in LASIK for adults with myopia. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL (which contains the Cochrane Eyes and Vision Trials Register) (2019, Issue 2); Ovid MEDLINE; Embase; PubMed; LILACS; ClinicalTrials.gov and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP). We used no date or language restrictions. We searched the reference lists of included trials. We searched the electronic databases on 22 February 2019. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of LASIK with a mechanical microkeratome compared to a femtosecond laser in people aged 18 years or older with more than 0.5 diopters of myopia or myopic astigmatism. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. MAIN RESULTS: We included 16 records from 11 trials enrolling 943 adults (1691 eyes) with spherical or spherocylindrical myopia, who were suitable candidates for LASIK. Five hundred and forty-seven participants (824 eyes) received LASIK with a mechanical microkeratome and 588 participants (867 eyes) with a femtosecond laser. Each trial included between nine and 360 participants. In six trials, the same participants received both interventions. Overall, the trials were at an uncertain risk of bias for most domains. At 12 months, data from one trial (42 eyes) indicates no difference in the mean uncorrected visual acuity (logMAR scale) between LASIK with a mechanical microkeratome and LASIK with a femtosecond laser (mean difference (MD) -0.01, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.06 to 0.04; low-certainty evidence). Similar findings were observed at 12 months after surgery, regarding participants achieving 0.5 diopters within target refraction (risk ratio (RR) 0.97, 95% CI 0.85 to 1.11; 1 trial, 79 eyes; low-certainty evidence) as well as mean spherical equivalent of the refractive error 12 months after surgery (MD 0.09, 95% CI -0.01 to 0.19; 3 trials, 168 eyes [92 participants]; low-certainty evidence). Based on data from three trials (134 eyes, 66 participants), mechanical microkeratome was associated with lower risk of diffuse lamellar keratitis compared with femtosecond laser (RR 0.27, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.78; low-certainty evidence). Thus, diffuse lamellar keratitis was a more common adverse event with femtosecond laser than with mechanical microkeratome, decreasing from an assumed rate of 209 per 1000 people in the femtosecond laser group to 56 per 1000 people in the mechanical microkeratome group. Data from one trial (183 eyes, 183 participants) indicates that dry eye as an adverse event may be more common with mechanical microkeratome than with femtosecond laser, increasing from an assumed rate of 80 per 1000 people in the femtosecond laser group to 457 per 1000 people in the mechanical microkeratome group (RR 5.74, 95% CI 2.92 to 11.29; low-certainty evidence). There was no evidence of a difference between the two groups for corneal haze (RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.01 to 7.96; 1 trial, 43 eyes) and epithelial ingrowth (RR 1.04, 95% CI 0.11 to 9.42; 2 trials, 102 eyes [50 participants]). The certainty of evidence for both outcomes was very low. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Regarding the visual acuity outcomes, there may be no difference between LASIK with mechanical microkeratome and LASIK with femtosecond laser. Dry eye and diffuse lamellar keratitis are likely adverse events with mechanical microkeratome and femtosecond laser, respectively. The evidence is uncertain regarding corneal haze and epithelial ingrowth as adverse events of each intervention. The limited number of outcomes reported in the included trials, some with potentially significant risk of bias, makes it difficult to draw a firm conclusion regarding the effectiveness and safety of the interventions investigated in this review.

Environmental and socioeconomic analysis of malaria transmission in the Brazilian Amazon, 2010-2015

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze the environmental and socioeconomic risk factors of malaria transmission at municipality level, from 2010 to 2015, in the Brazilian Amazon. METHODS The municipalities were stratified into high, moderate, and low transmission based on the annual parasite incidence. A multinomial logistic regression that compared low with medium transmission and low with high transmission was performed. For each category, three models were analyzed: one only with socioeconomic risk factors (Gini index, illiteracy, number of mines and indigenous areas); a second with the environmental factors (forest coverage and length of the wet season); and a third with all covariates (full model). RESULTS The full model showed the best performance. The most important risks factors for high transmission were Gini index, length of the wet season and illiteracy, OR 2.06 (95%CI 1.19-3.56), 1.73 (95%CI 1.19-2.51) and 1.10 (95%CI 1.03-1.17), respectively. The medium transmission showed a weaker influence of the risk factors, being illiteracy, forest coverage and indigenous areas statistically significant but with marginal influence. CONCLUSIONS As a disease of poverty, the reduction in wealth inequalities and, therefore, health inequalities, could reduce the transmission considerably. Besides, environmental risk factors as length of the wet season should be considered in the planning, prevention and control. Municipality-level and fine-scale analysis should be done together to improve the knowledge of the local dynamics of transmission.

Evaluating Neighborhood Correlates and Geospatial Distribution of Breast, Cervical, and Colorectal Cancer Incidence.

Introduction: Though cancer research has traditionally centered on individual-level exposures, there is growing interest in the geography of both cancer and its risk factors. This geographic and epidemiological research has consistently shown that cancer outcomes and their known causal exposures exhibit geographic variation that coincide with area-level socioeconomic status and the composition of neighborhoods. A retrospective study was conducted to evaluate geospatial variation for female breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer incidence in Baltimore City. Materials and Methods: Using a Maryland Cancer Registry dataset of incident breast, cervical, and colorectal cancers (N = 4,966) among Baltimore City female residents diagnosed from 2000 to 2010, spatial and epidemiological analyses were conducted through choropleth maps, spatial cluster identification, and local Moran's I. Ordinary least squares regression models identified characteristics associated with the geospatial clusters. Results: Each cancer type exhibited geographic variation across Baltimore City with the neighborhoods showing high incidence differing by cancer type. Specifically, breast cancer had significant low incidence in downtown Baltimore while cervical cancer had high incidence. The neighborhood covariates associated with the geographic variation also differed by cancer type while local Moran's I identified discordant clusters. Discussion: Cancer incidence varied geographically by cancer type within a single city (county). Small area estimates are needed to detect local patterns of disease when developing health and preventative programs. Given the observed variability of community-level characteristics associated with each cancer type incidence, local information is essential for developing place-, social-, and outcome-specific interventions.

El papel de los flujos interregionales en la diseminación de epidemias de dengue en una ciudad de clima tropical / The role of inter-regional flows in the spread of epidemics in a city of regional influence with a tropical climate

RESUMEN El objetivo de este trabajo fue investigar el origen de los casos importados de dengue en la ciudad de Araraquara, Brasil y describir las principales características epidemiológicas. El estudio abarcó todos los casos confirmados de dengue registrados en el Sistema de Información de Enfermedades de Notificación (SINAN) [Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação] de 1998-2013. Se consideraron como casos importados aquellos cuyo lugar de origen de infección se ubicara fuera de Araraquara. Se realizó un análisis descriptivo de la distribución de los casos por género, edad y clasificación de casos importados y autóctonos. Se utilizó un sistema de información geográfica para mapear los flujos y estimar las distancias de los puntos de contagio. Se incluyeron 6.913 casos confirmados, de los cuales 419 fueron importados. En la mayoría de estos casos, el origen de infección se ubicó en el estado de San Pablo, además de otras regiones brasileñas. Los resultados indican la relevancia de los casos importados y diferencias en el perfil epidemiológico por edad y sexo. Las conclusiones indican la necesidad de aumentar la vigilancia epidemiológica y de salud ambiental en los puertos, aeropuertos, paradas de camiones y terminales de buses y trenes.

ABSTRACT The aim of this research was to investigate the origin of imported cases of dengue in the city of Araraquara, Brazil and to describe the disease's main epidemiological characteristics. The study encompassed all confirmed cases of dengue recorded in the Information System for Notifiable Diseases (SINAN) [Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação] from 1998 to 2013. Cases whose origin of infection was likely located outside Araraquara were considered imported. The epidemiological study entailed a descriptive analysis of the data, regarding the distribution of cases by sex, age, and classification of imported and autochthonous cases. A geographic information system was used to map flows and estimate distances. There were 6,913 confirmed cases, 419 of which were imported. In most cases, the origin of infection was located in the state of São Paulo as well as other Brazilian regions. The results indicate the relevance of imported cases and differences in the epidemiological profile with respect to age and sex. Conclusions indicate the need to increase epidemiological and environmental health surveillance at ports, airports, truck stops, and bus and train terminals.

An American Thoracic Society/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Workshop Report: Addressing Respiratory Health Equality in the United States.

Health disparities related to race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status persist and are commonly encountered by practitioners of pediatric and adult pulmonary, critical care, and sleep medicine in the United States. To address such disparities and thus progress toward equality in respiratory health, the American Thoracic Society and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute convened a workshop in May of 2015. The workshop participants addressed health disparities by focusing on six topics, each of which concluded with a panel discussion that proposed recommendations for research on racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in pulmonary, critical care, and sleep medicine. Such recommendations address best practices to advance research on respiratory health disparities (e.g., characterize broad ethnic groups into subgroups known to differ with regard to a disease of interest), risk factors for respiratory health disparities (e.g., study the impact of new tobacco or nicotine products on respiratory diseases in minority populations), addressing equity in access to healthcare and quality of care (e.g., conduct longitudinal studies of the impact of the Affordable Care Act on respiratory and sleep disorders), the impact of personalized medicine on disparities research (e.g., implement large studies of pharmacogenetics in minority populations), improving design and methodology for research studies in respiratory health disparities (e.g., use study designs that reduce participants' burden and foster trust by engaging participants as decision-makers), and achieving equity in the pulmonary, critical care, and sleep medicine workforce (e.g., develop and maintain robust mentoring programs for junior faculty, including local and external mentors). Addressing these research needs should advance efforts to reduce, and potentially eliminate, respiratory, sleep, and critical care disparities in the United States.

Inappropriate Fentanyl Prescribing Among Nursing Home Residents in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: We quantified transdermal fentanyl prescribing in elderly nursing home residents without prior opioid use or persistent pain, and the association of individual and facility traits with opioid-naïve prescribing. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Linked Minimum Data Set (MDS) assessments; Online Survey, Certification and Reporting (OSCAR) records; and Medicare Part D claims. PARTICIPANTS: From a cross-section of all long-stay US nursing home residents in 2008 with an MDS assessment and Medicare Part D enrollment, we identified individuals (≥65 years old) who initiated transdermal fentanyl, excluding those with Alzheimer disease, severe cognitive impairment, cancer, or receipt of hospice care. MEASUREMENTS: We used Medicare Part D to select beneficiaries initiating transdermal fentanyl in 2008 and determined whether they were "opioid-naïve," defined as no opioid dispensing during the previous 60 days. We obtained resident and facility characteristics from MDS and OSCAR records and defined persistent pain as moderate-to-severe, daily pain on consecutive MDS assessments at least 90 days apart. We estimated associations of patient and facility attributes and opioid-naïve fentanyl initiation using multilevel mixed effects logistic regression modeling. RESULTS: Among 17,052 residents initiating transdermal fentanyl, 6190 (36.3%) were opioid-naïve and 15,659 (91.8%) did not have persistent pain. In the regression analysis with adjustments, residents who were older (ages ≥95 odds ratio [OR] 1.69, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.46-1.95) or more cognitively impaired (moderate-to-severe cognitive impairment, OR 1.99, 95% CI 1.73-2.29) were more likely to initiate transdermal fentanyl without prior opioid use. CONCLUSION: Most nursing home residents initiating transdermal fentanyl did not have persistent pain and many were opioid-naïve. Changes in prescribing practices may be necessary to ensure Food and Drug Administration warnings are followed, particularly for vulnerable subgroups, such as the cognitively impaired.

Developing an academia-based public health observatory: the new global public health observatory with emphasis on urban health at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health / O desenvolvimento de um observatório de saúde com base na academia: o novo observatório de saúde pública com ênfase na saúde urbana na Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health / El desarrollo de un observatorio de salud basado en la academia: el nuevo observatorio de salud pública con énfasis en la salud urbana en la Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

Abstract Health observatories may differ according to their mission, institutional setting, topical emphasis or geographic coverage. This paper discusses the development of a new urban-focused health observatory, and its operational research and training infrastructure under the academic umbrella of the Department of Epidemiology and the Institute of Urban Health at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (BSPH) in Baltimore, USA. Recognizing the higher education mission of the BSPH, the development of a new professional training in public health was an important first step for the development of this observatory. This new academia-based observatory is an innovative public health research and training platform offering faculty, investigators, professional epidemiology students and research partners a physical and methodological infrastructure for their operational research and training activities with both a local urban focus and a global reach. The concept of a public health observatory and its role in addressing social health inequalities in local urban settings is discussed.

Resumo Os observatórios de saúde podem se diferenciar de acordo com sua missão, contexto institucional, enfoque temático e cobertura geográfica. O artigo discute o desenvolvimento de um novo observatório de saúde pública com enfoque urbano e sua pesquisa operacional e infraestrutura de ensino, sob a égide acadêmica do Departamento de Epidemiologia e do Instituto de Saúde Urbana da Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (BSPH) em Baltimore, Estados Unidos. A Bloomberg School reafirmou sua missão no ensino superior ao lançar uma nova formação profissional em saúde pública como primeiro passo importante no desenvolvimento do observatório. O novo observatório com base na academia é uma plataforma inovadora para o ensino e pesquisa em saúde pública que oferece ao corpo docente, pesquisadores, alunos de epidemiologia, e parceiros em projetos de pesquisa uma infraestrutura física e metodológica para suas atividades de pesquisa operacional e capacitação, com enfoque urbano local e alcance global. Discute-se o conceito de um observatório de saúde pública e seu papel no enfrentamento das desigualdades sociais em saúde em contextos urbanos locais.

Resumen Los observatorios de salud pueden diferir de acuerdo con su misión, el contexto institucional, el enfoque temático y la cobertura geográfica. El artículo discute el desarrollo de un nuevo observatorio de salud pública con énfasis en la salud urbana y su investigación operativa y la infraestructura de la enseñanza, bajo los auspicios académicos del Departamento de Epidemiología y el Instituto de Salud Urbana de la Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health en Baltimore, Estados Unidos. La Bloomberg School reafirmó su misión en la educación superior mediante el lanzamiento de una nueva formación profesional en la salud pública como el primer paso en el desarrollo del observatorio. El nuevo observatorio, basado en la academia, es una plataforma innovadora para la enseñanza y la investigación en salud pública que ofrece a los profesores, investigadores, estudiantes de epidemiología y socios en proyectos de investigación, una infraestructura física y metodológica para las actividades de investigación operativa y de formación, con enfoque urbano local y alcance global. Se discute el concepto de un observatorio de salud pública y su papel en el afrontamiento a las desigualdades sociales en salud en los entornos urbanos locales.

Geospatial analysis applied to epidemiological studies of dengue: a systematic review / Analise geoespacial aplicada em estudos epidemiologicos de dengue: uma revisao sistematica

A systematic review of the geospatial analysis methods used in the dengue fever studies published between January 2001 and March 2011 was undertaken. In accordance with specific selection criteria thirty-five studies were selected for inclusion in the review. The aim was to assess the types of spatial methods that have been used to analyze dengue transmission. We found twenty-one different methods that had been used in dengue fever epidemiological studies in that period, three of which were most frequently used. The results show that few articles had applied spatial analysis methods in dengue fever studies; however, whenever they were applied they contributed to a better understanding of dengue fever geospatial diffusion.

United States-Mexico border diabetes prevalence survey: lessons learned from implementation of the project / Encuesta de prevalencia de diabetes en la zona fronteriza entre México y los Estados Unidos: lecciones aprendidas de la ejecución del proyecto

This paper reviews and discusses the main procedures and policies that need to be followed when designing and implementing a binational survey such as the United States of America (U.S.)-Mexico Border Diabetes Prevalence Study that took place between 2001 and 2002. The main objective of the survey was to determine the prevalence of diabetes in the population 18 years of age or older along U.S.-Mexico border counties and municipalities. Several political, administrative, financial, legal, and cultural issues were identified as critical factors that need to be considered when developing and implementing similar binational projects. The lack of understanding of public health practices, implementation of existing policies, legislation, and management procedures in Mexico and the United States may delay or cancel binational research, affecting the working relation of both countries. Many challenges were identified: multiagency/multifunding, ethical/budget clearances, project management, administrative procedures, laboratory procedures, cultural issues, and project communications. Binational projects are complex; they require coordination between agencies and institutions at federal, state, and local levels and between countries and need a political, administrative, bureaucratic, cultural, and language balance. Binational agencies and staff should coordinate these projects for successful implementation.

En este artículo se analizan los principales procedimientos y normas que se deberían seguir al diseñar y ejecutar una encuesta binacional, como el estudio de prevalencia de la diabetes en la zona fronteriza entre México y los Estados Unidos que se llevó a cabo entre el 2001 y el 2002. El objetivo principal de la encuesta fue determinar la prevalencia de diabetes en las personas de 18 años o mayores en los condados y municipios fronterizos entre México y los Estados Unidos. Se definieron diversos aspectos políticos, administrativos, financieros, legales y culturales como factores fundamentales que se deben tener en cuenta al elaborar y ejecutar proyectos binacionales similares. La falta de comprensión de las prácticas de salud pública, la ejecución de las normas existentes, la legislación y los procedimientos de gestión en México y los Estados Unidos pueden retardar o cancelar las actividades de investigación binacional, y afectar las relaciones de trabajo entre ambos países. Se señalaron muchas dificultades con respecto a la multiplicidad de organismos y fuentes de financiación, las autorizaciones de carácter ético y presupuestario, la gestión del proyecto, los procedimientos administrativos, los procedimientos de laboratorio, los aspectos culturales y la comunicación del proyecto. Los proyectos binacionales son complejos; requieren coordinación entre los organismos y las instituciones a escalas federal, estatal, local y entre países, y precisan un equilibrio político, administrativo, burocrático, cultural e idiomático. El personal y los organismos binacionales deben coordinar estos proyectos con objeto de lograr su eficaz ejecución.

Health status of Mexican-origin persons: do proxy measures of acculturation advance our understanding of health disparities?

OBJECTIVES: This paper compares select health status indicators between the U.S. and Mexico, and within the Mexican-origin population using proxy measures of acculturation. METHODS: Statistical data were abstracted and a Medline literature review conducted of English-language epidemiologic articles on Mexican-origin groups published during 1976-2005. RESULTS: U.S.-born Mexican-Americans have higher morbidity and mortality compared to Mexico-born immigrants. Mexico has lower healthcare resources, life expectancy, and circulatory system and cancer mortality rates, but similar infant immunization rates compared to the U.S. Along the U.S.-Mexico border, the population on the U.S. side has better health status than the Mexican side. The longer in the U.S., the more likely Mexican-born immigrants engage in behaviors that are not health promoting. Conclusions Researchers should consider SEP, community norms, behavioral risk and protective factors when studying Mexican-origin groups. It is not spending-time in the U.S. that worsens health outcomes but rather changes in health promoting behaviors.

Variación de los indicadores de mortalidad evitable entre comunas chilenas como aproximación a las desigualdades de salud / Using different indicators of preventable mortality as an approach to measuring health inequalities in Chilean municipalities

OBJECTIVES: To analyze differences in avoidable mortality among communes in Chile, using different indicators as an operational approach to estimating health inequalities. METHODS: Small area variation analysis in a sample of 117 of all 335 Chilean communes that existed in 1992. By using secondary data, we developed and compared some avoidable-mortality indicators, such as potential years of life lost (PYLL), avoidable mortality (AM) (based on background and criteria drawn from the literature), health care avoidable mortality (HCAMR), and life expectancy. A socioeconomic development index (SEDI) was also developed. The scope of the variation was estimated through the weighted variation coefficient, the Gini coefficient, the ratio between the values for the quintiles at both extremes of the SEDI distribution, and the ratio of the lowest SEDI quintile to the group of municipalities having a SEDI greater than 0.90 (optimal empirical reference value). The socioeconomic pattern of variations was examined through concentration curves and by comparing communal quintiles based on their SEDI. RESULTS: The various avoidable-mortality indicators used showed an inverse and statistically significant correlation with socioeconomic development, as well as with the profile of the various SEDI quintiles and with the majority of specific causes of avoidable mortality. The distribution profile of AM indicators among SEDI communal quintiles reflects the same tendency, along with most of the mortality from specific avoidable causes. The use of three reference values (the mean, the quintile with the greatest SEDI, and the optimal empirical reference value) makes it possible to measure gaps that could be avoided. The ratio of the lowest SEDI quintile to the empirical optimal reference value was 2.1 for AM, 2.0 for PYLL, 1.7 for infant mortality, and 1.5 for HCAMR. CONCLUSIONS: These results, which are consistent with those found in previous published sources, estimate the magni...

OBJETIVOS:Analizar variaciones de mortalidad evitable entre comunas, utilizando diversos indicadores, como aproximación operacional para estimar desigualdades de salud. MÉTODOS:Análisis de variación de áreas pequeñas en una muestra de 117 de las 335 comunas chilenas en 1992. Usando datos secundarios, se desarrollaron y analizaron indicadores de mortalidad evitable, tales como los años de vida potencial perdidos (AVPP), la mortalidad evitable (ME) (con antecedentes y criterios basados en fuentes publicadas), la mortalidad evitable mediante la atención de salud (MEAS), y la esperanza de vida. También se creó un indicador de desarrollo socioeconómico (IDSE). La amplitud de las variaciones observadas entre indicadores se estimó mediante el coeficiente ponderado de variación, el coeficiente de Gini, la razón entre quintiles extremos del IDSE y la razón entre el quintil con el menor IDSE y el grupo de comunas con IDSE mayores de 0,90 (referencia empírica óptima). El perfil socioeconómico de las variaciones se examinó mediante curvas de concentración y la comparación de quintiles comunales según IDSE. RESULTADOS:Los diversos indicadores de ME usados mostraron una relación inversa estadísticamente significativa con el desarrollo socioeconómico, tendencia también observada en el perfil de los quintiles definidos por IDSE y en la mayoría de las causas específicas de mortalidad evitable. El uso de tres niveles de referencia (promedio, quintil con el mayor IDSE y referencia empírica óptima) plantea la medición de distintas brechas que podrían prevenirse. La razón entre el quintil con el menor IDSE y la referencia óptima fue de 2,1 en el caso de la ME, de 2,0 en el caso de los AVPP, de 1,7 en el de la mortalidad infantil y de 1,5 en el de la MEAS. CONCLUSIONES:Los resultados, que coinciden con los hallados en otras fuentes publicadas previamente, ponderan la magnitud y el perfil de las variaciones entre comunas y proveen información, basada en datos de 1992...

Overview of social inequalities in health in the region of the Americas, using various methodological approaches / Visión general de las desigualdades de salud en la Región de las Américas, usando diversos enfoques metodológicos

Over the past decade, according to several important indicators, health conditions have improved in the Region of the Americas. However, inequalities persist among the countries of the Region. This article has two primary objectives: 1) to provide some unbiased evidence on health inequalities among countries of the Region of the Americas and 2) to illustrate the application of some of the more frequently used methods for measuring inequalities, including effect measurements, population attributable risk, the slope index of inequality, the relative index of inequality, and the concentration index. Analyses have shown that there are great health disparities in the Region of the Americas. For example, residents of the poorest countries of the Region live nearly 10 years less, on average, than do residents of the richest countries. If the other countries of the Americas had the same incidence of tuberculosis as does the subregion of North America (Bermuda, Canada, and the United States of America), there would be 76% fewer cases of this disease in the Region. In the Americas, nearly 35% of deaths of infants under 1 year old are concentrated in the 20% of live births that occur in the group with the lowest income. As for maternal mortality in the Americas, fewer than 2% of maternal deaths occur in association with the 20% of live births in the group with the highest income. The analyses of health inequalities based on the use of various methods highlight the existence of important disparities among subregions and countries of the Americas that are not readily seen when using only the more-traditional methods for analyzing mortality and morbidity. There is also a need to incorporate the concepts of distribution and socioeconomic dimensions of health when interpreting a given situation. Using this approach will allow decisionmakers to target areas and populations that are in less-favorable conditions. A considerable body of aggregate data at the...

Según varios indicadores importantes, las condiciones de salud han mejorado en la Región de las Américas a lo largo de la pasada década. Sin embargo, sigue habiendo desigualdades entre los pa¦ses de la Región. Este artículo tiene dos objectivos principales: 1) aportar algunos datos objetivos sobre las desigualdades de salud entre los países de la Región de las Américas, y 2) ilustrar la aplicación de algunos de los métodos utilizados con más frecuencia para medir las desigualdades, como las mediciones de efecto, el riesgo atribuible poblacional, el índice de desigualdad de la pendiente, el índice relativo de desigualdad y el índice de concentración. Los análisis muestran que hay grandes disparidades de salud en la Región de las Américas. Por ejemplo, los residentes en los países más pobres de la Región viven, por término medio, cerca de 10 años menos que los residentes en los países más ricos. Si otros países americanos tuvieran la misma incidencia de tuberculosis que la subregión de Norteamérica (Bermuda, Canadá y Estados Unidos), habría un 76% menos de casos de esta enfermedad en la Región. En América, cerca de 35% de las muertes de niños menores de 1 año se concentran en 20% de los nacidos vivos del grupo con menores ingresos. Por otro lado, las muertes maternas asociadas a 20% de los nacidos vivos del grupo con mayores ingresos representan menos de 2% de la mortalidad materna. Los análisis de las desigualdades de salud basadas en el uso de diversos métodos destacan la existencia de importantes disparidades entre las subregiones y países americanos que no son fácilmente detectables cuando solo se usan los métodos más tradicionales para el análisis de la mortalidad y morbilidad. También hay necesidad de incorporar los conceptos de distribución y las dimensiones socioeconómicas de la salud al interpretar una determinada situación. El uso de este enfoque les permitirá a las instancias decisorias...

Métodos de medición de las desigualdades de salud / Methods for measuring inequalities in health

Measuring health inequalities is indispensable for progress in improving the health situation in the Region of the Americas, where the analysis of average values is no longer sufficient. Analyzing health inequalities is a fundamental tool for action that seeks greater equity in health. There are various measurement methods, with differing levels of complexity, and choosing one rather than another depends on the objective of the study. The purpose of this article is to familiarize health professionals and decision-making institutions with methodological aspects of the measurement and simple analysis of health inequalities, utilizing basic data that are regularly reported by geopolitical unit. The calculation method and the advantages and disadvantages of the following indicators are presented: the rate ratio and the rate difference, the effect index, the population attributable risk, the index of dissimilarity, the slope index of inequality and the relative index of inequality, the Gini coefficient, and the concentration index. The methods presented are applicable to measuring various types of inequalities and at different levels of analysis.

La medición de las desigualdades en el campo de la salud es una condición indispensable para avanzar en la mejoría de la situación de salud de la Región, donde el análisis de los valores medios ha dejado de ser suficiente. Este tipo de análisis es una herramienta fundamental para la acción en busca de una mayor equidad en salud. Existen diferentes métodos de medición y niveles de complejidad cuya elección depende del objetivo del estudio. Este artículo tiene como objetivo familiarizar a los profesionales de la salud y a las instancias decisorias con los aspectos metodológicos de la medición y el análisis simple de las desigualdades en el campo de la salud, utilizando datos básicos registrados con regularidad y agregados por unidades geopolíticas. Se presenta la forma de calcular los siguientes indicadores y se comentan sus ventajas y desventajas: la razón y la diferencia de tasas, el índice de efecto, el riesgo atribuible poblacional, el índice de disimilitud, el índice de desigualdad de la pendiente y el índice relativo de desigualdad, el coeficiente de Gini y el índice de concentración. Los métodos presentados son aplicables a la medición de las desigualdades de diferentes tipos y a distintos niveles de análisis.

A mensuração das desigualdades em saúde é uma condição indispensável para se avançar na melhoria da situação de saúde da Região, onde a análise de valores médios deixou de ser suficiente. Este tipo de análise é uma ferramenta fundamental para ações que buscam maior eqüidade em saúde. Existem diferentes métodos de mensuração e níveis de complexidade, cuja escolha depende do objetivo do estudo. Este artigo tem como objetivo familiarizar os profissionais de saúde e os tomadores de decisão com os aspectos metodológicos da mensuração e da análise simples das desigualdades em saúde, utilizando-se dados básicos coletados rotineiramente e agregados por unidades geopolíticas. São apresentadas as formas de calcular os seguintes indicadores e são discutidas suas vantagens e desvantagens: Razão e Diferença de Taxas, Índice de Efeito, Risco Atribuível Populacional, Índice de Dissimilaridade, Índice Angular de Desigualdade e Índice Relativo de Desigualdade, Coeficiente de Gini e Índice de concentração. Os métodos apresentados são aplicáveis na mensuração de desigualdades em diferentes tipos e níveis de análise

Los sistemas de información geográfica como herramienta para monitorear las desigualdades de salud / Geographic information systems as a tool for monitoring health inequalities

OBJECTIVE: To show how geographic information systems (GISs) can be used as technological tools to support health policy and public health actions. METHODS: We assessed the relationship between infant mortality and a number of socio-economic and geographic determinants. In explaining how GISs are applied, we stressed their ability to integrate data, which makes it possible to perform epidemiologic evaluations in a simpler, faster, automated way that simultaneously analyzes multiple variables with different levels of aggregation. In this study, GISs were applied in analyzing infant mortality data with three levels of aggregation in countries of the Americas from 1995 to 2000. RESULTS: Infant mortality in the Region of the Americas was estimated at an overall average of 24.4 deaths per 1,000 live births. However, the inequalities that were found indicate that the probability of an infant death is almost 20 times greater in the less developed countries of the Region than in more developed ones. Mapping infant mortality throughout the Region of the Americas allowed us to identify the countries that need to focus more attention on health policy and health programs, but not to determine what specific actions are of the highest priority. An analysis of smaller geopolitical units (states and municipalities) revealed important differences within countries. This shows that, as is true of data for the entire Region of the Americas, using national-level average figures for indicators can obscure the differences that exist within countries. When we examined the relationship between female illiteracy and malnutrition as determinants of infant mortality in Brazil and Ecuador, we identified social and epidemiologic strata where risk factors had different distribution patterns and that thus require health interventions that match their individual social and epidemiologic profiles. CONCLUSIONS: With this type of epidemiologic study using GISs at the local...

OBJETIVOS: Mostrar la aplicación de los sistemas de información geográfica (SIG) como instrumento tecnológico para apoyar las actividades en las áreas de política sanitaria y salud pública. MÉTODOS: Se evaluó la relación entre la mortalidad infantil y diversos factores determinantes de carácter socioeconómico y geográfico. Al ilustrar la aplicación, se hace hincapié en la capacidad integradora de los SIG, que permite simplificar, agilizar y automatizar la evaluación epidemiológica, tomando en cuenta el análisis múltiple simultáneo de variables determinantes con diferentes niveles de agregación. La aplicación de los SIG abarcó, en este estudio, el análisis de la mortalidad infantil en tres niveles de agregación en países de las Américas entre 1995 y 2000. RESULTADOS: La mortalidad infantil estimada para la Región tuvo un promedio de 24,4 defunciones por 1 000 nacidos vivos, pero las desigualdades observadas indican que la probabilidad de una muerte infantil es casi 20 veces mayor en los países de menos recursos que en los más prósperos. El mapeo de la mortalidad infantil a escala regional permitió identificar los países que requieren mayor atención en sus políticas y programas de salud, pero no distinguir dónde se requerían acciones más prioritarias. Un análisis de las unidades geopolíticas más pequeñas (estados y municipios) reveló importantes diferencias dentro de los países y permitió reproducir el patrón de desigualdad regional, que no se ve reflejado por el valor promedio de los indicadores a escala nacional. Al analizarse la relación entre el analfabetismo femenino y la desnutrición como factores determinantes de la mortalidad infantil en Brasil y Ecuador, se identificaron estratos sociales y epidemiológicos con distribuciones diferenciales de factores de riesgo que requieren intervenciones sanitarias adecuadas para sus respectivos perfiles socioepidemiológicos. CONCLUSIONES: Gracias a este tipo de análisis epidemiológico a escala local...

Indices para medir las desigualdades de salud de carácter social basados en la noción de entropía / Indices based on entropy for measuring social inequalities in health

As described in the scientific literature, indices used to measure social inequalities in health have positive features, but they also have shortcomings, depending on how they are applied. The objective of this article is to put forward and to demonstrate, in both theoretical and practical terms, the advantages of measurements of inequality based on the notion of entropy, which is well known in physics and in information theory. The article defines and presents the main properties of indices based on the notions of entropy and redundancy. The application of the indices is illustrated with two fictitious data sets and also with real data derived from basic health indicators for the Americas, from the Pan American Health Organization. Indices based on the notion of entropy have properties that include: a) not varying with scale changes, b) being symmetrical, c) incorporating a socioeconomic dimension, and d) being easy to interpret thanks to the condition of equivalence between entropy and a system with two categories.

Los índices descritos en la literatura para medir las desigualdades de salud de carácter social tienen facetas positivas pero también algunas insuficiencias, según las circunstancias de su aplicación. El objetivo de este artículo es proponer y demostrar, en los planos teórico y práctico, las ventajas de las mediciones de la desigualdad basadas en la noción de entropía, conocida ampliamente en la física y la teoría de la información. Se definen y exponen las principales propiedades de los índices basados en las nociones de entropía y redundancia. Se ilustra su aplicación en dos conjuntos de datos ficticios y en datos reales, derivados de los indicadores básicos de salud para las Américas, de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud. Los índices basados en la noción de entropía poseen, entre otras, las siguientes propiedades: a) no varían con los cambios de escala; b) son simétricos; c) incorporan la dimensión social, y d) son fáciles de interpretar gracias a la condición de equivalencia entre la entropía y un sistema con dos clases.