Complex Interplay of Genes Underlies Invasiveness in Fibrosarcoma Progression Model.

Sarcomas are a heterogeneous group of mesenchymal tumours, with a great variability in their clinical behaviour. While our knowledge of sarcoma initiation has advanced rapidly in recent years, relatively little is known about mechanisms of sarcoma progression. JUN-murine fibrosarcoma progression series consists of four sarcoma cell lines, JUN-1, JUN-2, JUN-2fos-3, and JUN-3. JUN-1 and -2 were established from a single tumour initiated in a H2K/v-jun transgenic mouse, JUN-3 originates from a different tumour in the same animal, and JUN-2fos-3 results from a targeted in vitro transformation of the JUN-2 cell line. The JUN-1, -2, and -3 cell lines represent a linear progression from the least transformed JUN-2 to the most transformed JUN-3, with regard to all the transformation characteristics studied, while the JUN-2fos-3 cell line exhibits a unique transformation mode, with little deregulation of cell growth and proliferation, but pronounced motility and invasiveness. The invasive sarcoma sublines JUN-2fos-3 and JUN-3 show complex metabolic profiles, with activation of both mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis and a significant increase in spared respiratory capacity. The specific transcriptomic profile of invasive sublines features very complex biological relationships across the identified genes and proteins, with accentuated autocrine control of motility and angiogenesis. Pharmacologic inhibition of one of the autocrine motility factors identified, Ccl8, significantly diminished both motility and invasiveness of the highly transformed fibrosarcoma cell. This progression series could be greatly valuable for deciphering crucial aspects of sarcoma progression and defining new prognostic markers and potential therapeutic targets.

Clinical significance of the resistance proteins LRP, Pgp, MRP1, MRP3, and MRP5 in epithelial ovarian cancer.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the correlation between the expressions of lung resistance protein (LRP), P-glycoprotein (Pgp), multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP)-1, MRP3, and MRP5 and histopathological parameters and clinical outcome, and to determine the predictive and prognostic value of these transport proteins in patients with ovarian cancer. METHODS: Tumor samples from 111 chemonaive patients with epithelial ovarian cancer who underwent primary surgery from 2006 to 2010 were immunohistochemically stained for LRP, Pgp, MRP1, MRP3, and MRP5 expressions. RESULTS: MRP1 expression was greater among patients with late disease than among patients with early stage ovarian cancer [International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) I + II, 71.6% (confidence interval, 60-100); FIGO III + IV, 83.6% (confidence interval, 100-100); P = 0.03]. The histological subtype correlated with the expressions of LRP, Pgp, MRP1, and MRP3. Relapse of disease during the next 24 months occurred more often among patients with higher Pgp and MRP1 than among patients with lower Pgp and MRP1 expressions. FIGO stage, histological type, debulking efficiency, strong Pgp expression, and strong MRP1 expression correlated significantly with shorter progression-free survival (log-rank test, P = 0.001, P = 0.004, P = 0.001, P = 0.051, and P = 0.046, respectively). FIGO stage, histological type, debulking efficiency, and strong MRP1 expression correlated with poor patient survival (log-rank test, P = 0.001, P = 0.042, P = 0.005, and P = 0.018, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Pgp and MRP1 expressions were clinically significant in patients with ovarian cancer. Pgp and MRP1 may be reliable, independent predictive and prognostic factors regarding the clinical outcome of ovarian cancer. MRP3 is less important as a predictive and prognostic factor than MRP1 expression. MRP5 and LRP expressions were not applicable prognostic parameters regarding ovarian cancer.

The role of autophagic cell death and apoptosis in irinotecan-treated p53 null colon cancer cells.

The roles of autophagic cell death and apoptosis induced by topoisomerase inhibitor irinotecan in colon cancer cells with deleted p53 were investigated during 48 h. We report that irinotecan-dependent cytotoxicity and proapoptotic activity were reduced in the present model while autophagy levels significantly increased. Upon p53 transfection, cell demise rates increased, with cells bearing the features of apoptosis and autophagic cell death. The subsequent studies into mechanisms of cell death process revealed the important role of Bax in mediating mitochondrial and lysosomal leakage which might serve as leading signals for both apoptosis and autophagic cell death. These results suggest that different modes of cell death in p53 null colon cancer cells treated with cytostatics (irinotecan) may be activated simultaneously. Moreover, their interactions possibly occur at several stages and aren't mutually exclusive. This might thus lead to a potential synergism with interesting therapeutic ramifications.

Irinotecan induces senescence and apoptosis in colonic cells in vitro.

Irinotecan (CPT-11) is topoisomerase I inhibitor used in the treatment of disseminated colorectal cancer. In colon cancer cells it induces DNA damage which leads to cytotoxicity with ensuing apoptosis or premature senescence. Despite its clinical use and efficiency in malignant colonocytes, its effects in normal colonic cells are relatively underexplored. In this work we report that CPT-11 induces dose-dependent cytotoxicity which results in apoptosis and premature senescence whose occurrence nevertheless varies in relation to the type of exposed cells. In normal colonic epithelial cells (NCM) the prevailing type of response is apoptosis whereas in normal colonic fibroblasts (NCF) it is premature senescence. Further analyses showed that CPT-11 induced in both types of cells DNA damage and activated stress response pathways including p53 and p16 but with varying activity of stress kinase p38 and selected stress-associated microRNAs. Epithelial cells upregulated the expression of p53, which was subsequently specifically phosphorylated, massively activated p38 and initiated mitochondrial, caspase-dependent apoptosis. These events occurred in the presence of moderately increased expression of miR-34a only. Conversely, in colonic fibroblasts p38 was only moderately activated, p53 as well as p16 expressions were upregulated in the presence of increased expression of miR-34a, miR-128a and miR-449a. Caspase-dependent apoptosis was found only in a minority of treated cells and the premature senescence phenotype was prevailing. Specific inhibition further proved that p53-dependent as well as independent mechanisms might be responsible for these cell type-specific differences.

Selenite-induced apoptosis and autophagy in colon cancer cells.

Sodium selenite (Se) is known to induce diverse stress responses in malignant cells which may lead to various types of cell death including apoptosis and/or autophagy. In colon cancer cells, Se activates several signaling pathways whose interactions and ultimate endpoints may vary in individual study models. In our previous work we showed differences in Se-dependent growth inhibition, cell cycle alterations and apoptosis in colon cancer cells with functional (HCT-116) and deleted (HCT-116-p53KO) p53. Moreover, detailed morphological and biochemical analyses revealed the presence of autophagy in Se-treated cells. Thus the aim of this study was to investigate in detail mechanisms, relationship and crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy in Se-treated HCT-116 cancer cells differing in p53 status since p53 has been shown to play a well-known role in apoptosis but dichotomous role in autophagy. We report that the absence of p53 in malignant colonocytes changes patterns of response to Se-induced stress which include differential activation of MAP kinases (p38 - HCT-116 and JNK - HCT-116 p53KO) including their respective roles in the process of apoptosis and autophagy as well as the involvement of mTOR or PI3K signaling. Our results seem to suggest that deletion of p53 inevitably leads to a higher level of instability and delays in an individual cell decision in the face of stress whether to activate apoptosis or autophagy which may consequently occur simultaneously with mutual dichotomous relationship.

Antiproliferative effects of selected chemotherapeutics in human ovarian cancer cell line A2780.

The aim of our study was to determine the effect of selected cytostatics on a human ovarian cancer cell line A2780 as a model system for ovarian cancer treatment. This cell line is considered cisplatin-sensitive. Panel of tested cytostatics included cisplatin, paclitaxel, carboplatin, gemcitabine, topotecan and etoposide. These cytostatics have a different mechanism of action. To evaluate cytotoxic potential of the tested compounds, the methods measuring various toxicological endpoints were employed including morphological studies, MTT assay, dynamic monitoring of cell proliferation with xCELLigence, cell cycle analysis, caspase 3 activity and expression of proteins involved in cell cycle regulation and cell death. The A270 cell line showed different sensitivity towards the selected cytostatics, the highest cytotoxic effect was associated with paclitaxel and topotecan.

Stress responses of human dermal fibroblasts exposed to zinc pyrithione.

Zinc pyrithione is used as a topical agent in a range of medicinal and cosmetic applications. Despite its extensive use and reported beneficial effects in treatment of various dermal problems, its potential toxicity towards skin cells remains relatively underexplored. In this work we investigated effects of nM zinc pyrithione on cell stress response pathways of primary human skin fibroblasts during 24h of exposure. We demonstrate that zinc pyrithione-induced cytotoxity in dermal fibroblasts is dose-dependent and it associates with increased intracellular zinc concentrations and activated stress response pathways including p53 and stress kinase p38. Higher zinc pyrithione concentrations (500nM and above) stimulate oxidative stress and moderate DNA damage which occur in the presence of activated p38 kinase. Cells further upregulate the expression of p53 which increases its transcriptional activity while mitogenic signaling exemplified by mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) expression is suppressed and these steps lead to mitochondrial, caspase-dependent apoptosis. Conversely, lower zinc concentrations (125nM) fail to induce oxidative stress and significant DNA damage; however, treated cells still activate p38 and upregulate the expression and transcriptional activity of p53 and its target gene p21 as well as the expression of p16 in the presence of active mTOR pathway and a changed DNA methylation pattern. The end result is premature senescence phenotype. Specific pharmacological inhibitors as well as gene knockdown technology prove that an interaction between p38, p53 and mTOR might be responsible for these observed endpoints. Taken together, exposure of dermal fibroblasts to varying concentrations of zinc pyrithione may result in either cell death-apoptosis or cellular premature senescence which attests to the ability of this compound to affect this type of cells in an in vitro model system.

Sulforaphane induces cytotoxicity and lysosome- and mitochondria-dependent cell death in colon cancer cells with deleted p53.

Mechanisms and pathways responsible for cytotoxicity of sulforaphane (SF) in colon cancer cells with deleted p53 were investigated during 48 h of exposure. SF showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity and proapoptotic activity in the present model. In addition, in HCT-116 p53KO cells SF induced DNA damage with the subsequent cellular response and signaling not including p53 and caspase-2 pathways. Conversely, in SF-treated cells JNK was activated which led to an early lysosomal membrane permeabilization, release of cathepsin B and D and activation of Bid by specific cleavage. Concomitantly, the expression of Bax increased in the presence of JNK-mediated Bcl-2 inhibition which was followed by mitochondrial release of cytochrome c and activation of apoptosis. These results suggest that SF may be useful as a chemopreventive agent in colon cancer with inactivated or lost p53.

Nickel modifies the cytotoxicity of hexavalent chromium in human dermal fibroblasts.

We investigated combined effects of hexavalent chromium and nickel on viability, intracellular signaling and cell death of primary human skin fibroblasts during 24 h of exposure. We show that nickel at non-toxic concentrations prevents hexavalent chromium-induced cell damage and apoptosis, mainly by overexpression of heat shock proteins (HSPs), in particular HSP27 and activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NFkappaB) as demonstrated by specific knockdown of HSPs or NFkappaB. Conversely, cytotoxic nickel concentrations which induce apoptosis in dermal fibroblasts by themselves act to enhance hexavalent chromium effects in the same cells by stimulating oxidative stress and depleting ATP leading to rapid necrosis as demonstrated by markedly increased LDH release in exposed cells. Using specific pharmacological inhibitors it was further demonstrated that oxidative stress and PARP-1 activity are responsible for rapid necrosis. In conclusion, exposure of dermal fibroblasts to high nickel concentrations in combination with hexavalent chromium may result in rapid cell damage leading to necrosis while low nickel concentrations may prevent hexavalent chromium-induced cell death with potential accumulation of damaged but otherwise viable cells.

Responses of human gingival and periodontal fibroblasts to a low-zinc environment.

Morphology, motility, proliferation rate and markers of oxidative stress in primary human gingival fibroblasts (GF) and periodontal ligamental fibroblasts (PDL-F) grown in zinc-deficient cultivation medium (ZDM), were studied over a 5-week culture period. A low-zinc environment effectively reduced the total, as well as the free, intracellular zinc content in both cell types, over the course of the experiment. Decreased intracellular zinc content resulted in altered cellular morphology, reduced motility, and rearrangement of actin and tubulin in the cytoskeleton. In addition, fibroblasts with low zinc content exhibited decreased proliferation, accompanied by changes in cell cycle distribution, expression of specific biochemical markers, increased oxidative stress and the activation of caspase-3. Supplementation of ZDM with exogenous zinc prevented the loss of intracellular zinc, while also restoring the morphology, cell proliferation and mitogenic signalling of the cultured cells. Moreover, such supplemented cells were protected against oxidative stress and cell death. Of the two primary cell cultures examined, GF were more sensitive to decreased intracellular zinc content, when compared to PDL-F. The results obtained suggest that the human primary cell cultures can be useful for the longer-term evaluation of the effects of nutritional factors originating from the environment.

Zinc pyrithione induces cellular stress signaling and apoptosis in Hep-2 cervical tumor cells: the role of mitochondria and lysosomes.

Increased intracellular free zinc concentrations are associated with activation of several stress signaling pathways, specific organelle injury and final cell death. In the present work we examined the involvement of mitochondria and lysosomes and their crosstalk in free zinc-induced cell demise. We report that treatment of cervical tumor Hep-2 cells with zinc pyrithione leads to an early appearance of cytoplasmic zinc-specific foci with corresponding accumulation of zinc first in mitochondria and later in lysosomes. Concomitant with these changes, upregulation of expression of metallothionein II A gene as well as the increased abundance of its protein occurs. Moreover, zinc activates p53 and its dependent genes including Puma and Bax and they contribute to an observed loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of apoptosis. Conversely, lysosomal membrane permeabilization and its promoted cleavage of Bid occurs in a delayed manner in treated cells and their effect on decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential is limited. The use of specific inhibitors as well as siRNA technology suggest a crucial role of MT-IIA in trafficking of free zinc into mitochondria or lysosomes and regulation of apoptotic or necrotic cell demise.

Antiproliferative and cytotoxic effects of sodium selenite in human colon cancer cells.

Sodium selenite has been reported to interfere with cell growth and proliferation and to induce cell death. Despite of our current knowledge, details about its effects on growth and behavior of colonocytes with differing p53 status remain unknown. In our study, we evaluated the antiproliferative, cell cycle specific and proapoptotic potential of sodium selenite in HCT-116 colorectal cells with wild type p53 and its isogenic control HCT-116-p53KO cell line. Cell proliferation in selenite-treated cells was followed by computer-enhanced time-lapse videomicroscopy, by measuring protein content (Coomassie Brilliant Blue assay), metabolic activity (WST-1) and DNA synthesis (BrdU). Changes in cell cycle were determined by flow cytometry and Western blotting. Cell death was measured with the nuclear fragmentation assay and caspase-3 immunostaining. We show that sodium selenite inhibits the growth and proliferation of colon cancer cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner, with HCT-116 cells being more sensitive than HCT-116-p53KO cells. Moreover, upon sodium selenite treatment, there was a tendency for cells to accumulate at G2 phase which was accompanied by the increasing expression of cyclin B1, Cdc2 p34, p21 and the sub G1 fraction of the cell cycle. In addition, PARP and nuclear fragmentation and activation of caspase-3 were more profound in HCT-116 cells versus HCT-116-p53KO cells, thus indicating important role of p53 and dependent signaling in selenite-induced toxicity.

Antiproliferative effects of selenium compounds in colon cancer cells: comparison of different cytotoxicity assays.

A number of cytotoxicity assays are currently available, each of them using specific approach to detect different aspects of cell viability, such as cell integrity, proliferation and metabolic functions. In this study we compared the potential of five commonly employed cytotoxicity assays (WST-1, XTT, MTT, Brilliant blue and Neutral red assay) to detect antiproliferative effects of three selenium compounds, sodium selenite, seleno-L-methionine (SeMet) and Se-(Methyl)selenocysteine (SeMCys) on three colorectal cancer cell lines in vitro. Cells were exposed to the selected selenium compounds in the concentration range of 0-256 microM during 48 h. WST-1 and XTT failed to detect cytotoxic effect, with the exception of the highest concentration of selenium compounds tested. Conversely, the metabolic activity of selenium treated cells measured by WST-1 and XTT significantly increased in comparison to untreated controls. MTT, Neutral red and Brilliant blue assays were more sensitive and yielded mutually comparable results, with significant decrease of measured parameters in a concentration-dependent manner. To a smaller extent, the results were affected by the different chemical nature of the selenium compounds tested as well as by the biological properties of individual cell lines.

Cytotoxicity and mitochondrial apoptosis induced by etoposide in melanoma cells.

Cytotoxicity and apoptosis induced by etoposide were studied during 72 hr in human melanoma cells. Etoposide initiated DNA-damage signaling via ATM kinase and activated p53 pathway and caspase-2. In response to treatment with etoposide, mitochondria of melanoma cells first increased their abundance and activity, and at later treatment intervals their dynamic behavior and functions became suppressed. Observed mitochondrial perturbation was not preceded by membrane potential loss but cytochrome c release was observed together with a rise in caspase-9 and caspase-3 activities. The pharmacological inhibition of relevant induced targets proved the importance of ATM and caspase-2 in etoposide-mediated cytotoxicity and apoptosis.

Trivalent chromium activates Rac-1 and Src and induces switch in the cell death mode in human dermal fibroblasts.

In this study we examined interactions between human dermal fibroblasts and chromium acetate hydroxide originating from environmental waste sediments. We show that initially exposure of fibroblasts to Cr (III) induced membrane-dependent signaling including activation of Rac1 GTPase, Src and apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK-1) kinases leading to increased activities of p38 and particularly Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and subsequent activation of caspase-3. At later treatment intervals (48-96 h), caspase-3 activity became suppressed and markedly increased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release was observed. Further experiments demonstrated that LDH release occurred in the presence of increased oxidative stress, extensive DNA damage, overactivation of poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase-1 (PARP-1) and depletion of ATP. Using specific inhibitors it was demonstrated that oxidative stress along with PARP-1 activity are responsible for cell death mode switch and upon their inhibition caspase-3 activity could be restored. In conclusion, Cr (III) seems to induce a biphasic response in dermal fibroblasts, with initial apoptosis switched to necrosis via increased DNA damage and resulting PARP-1 activity.

Mechanisms participating in oxidative damage of isolated rat hepatocytes.

The aim of the study was to evaluate time course and dose dependence of peroxidative damage induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide (tBHP) in rat hepatocytes cultured in suspension and in monolayer. At the lowest (0.1 mM) concentration, decrease of cytosolic glutathione and discharge of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) could be detected. Significant increases in leakage of lactate dehydrogenase and in malondialdehyde concentrations together with decrease of pyruvate-dependent respiration were detected at higher tBHP concentrations (above 0.5 mM) and after longer periods of incubation. Changes in plasma membrane integrity were observed at 1 mM concentration of tBHP. Succinate-dependent oxidation was most resistant to peroxidative damages. Opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore was responsible for the discharge of mitochondria membrane potential. In the presence of cyclosporine A and succinate, the membrane potential could be restored. Our data showed that the most sensitive indicators of the peroxidative damage are changes of cytosolic glutathione concentration and MMP.

Selenium and colon cancer--from chemoprevention to new treatment modality.

Colorectal cancer is among the most common cancers worldwide, in terms of overall mortality. Environmental factors have been identified to play the most important roles in the development of this disease, in particular diet and its specific components. Selenium is an important micronutrient engaged in the protection of colonic cells against a wide range of external and internal stressors. In addition, selenium has been reported to actively inhibit growth of malignant colonic cells as well as to induce their demise. Furthermore, besides its promising chemopreventive role in the various stages of colorectal cancer development, selected chemical forms of selenium have shown interesting interaction patterns with some cytostatic chemicals or inducers of apoptosis. The advantages of selected selenium preparations thus might reach beyond chemoprevention since they may be used in conjunction with established antioneoplastic drugs, thereby establishing new treatment modality for colorectal cancer. In addition to summarizing our current knowledge about the mechanisms whereby selenium imparts its chemopreventive potential in colon carcinogenesis, the possibilities of a combined use of selenium with other cytostatics and chemicals are discussed.

Zinc alters cytoskeletal integrity and migration in colon cancer cells.

Zinc has been shown to have inhibitory effects on proliferation and metabolism of malignant colonocytes. Still, there is no information available concerning putative effects of zinc against motility and migration of colon cancer cells. Using fluorescence microscopy, immunoblotting and microflorimetry we show that treatment with zinc sulfate affected motility, invasiveness, cytoskeletal integrity and expression of selected markers (E-cadherin, catenin, vimentin, tubulin and actin) of invasive SW480 colon tumor cells. These results emphasize the possible multitudinous role of zinc in the process of colon cancer development and hint at the potential of this element in chemoprevention of advanced colorectal carcinoma.

External zinc stimulates proliferation of tumor Hep-2 cells by active modulation of key signaling pathways.

The effect of external zinc supplementation (10 and 35 micromol) on cell proliferation and mitogenic signaling of Hep-2 tumor cells was examined during 72 h of treatment. Zinc levels were manipulated by using zinc-free cultivation medium with or without addition of zinc ions. Proliferation of Hep-2 cells exposed to zinc-free medium decreased in a time-dependent manner and corresponded to decreasing intracellular zinc content. Hep-2 cells accumulated in G(0)/G(1) phase, showed reduced abundance of AKT and NF-kappaB as well as of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL proteins. Zinc supplied to Hep-2 cells maintained in the presence of zinc-free medium stimulated their proliferation as well as mitogenic signaling which paralleled increasing intracellular zinc content. In zinc-exposed Hep-2 cells, several changes in various mitogenic signaling pathways were noted such as enhanced expression of p53, AKT and MAP kinases, NF-kappaB and increased DNA binding of AP-1 family. Also, supplementation with zinc of Hep-2 cells resulted in the suppression of key apoptotic molecules such as Bax protein and increased expression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL proteins. Since only the highest supplied zinc concentration (35 micromol) induced oxidative stress, it is reasoned that the observed activation of pro-survival signaling occurs both directly and indirectly. These data show that zinc may stimulate growth and proliferation of some tumor cells by a combination of internal mechanisms with a varying contribution of external signaling pathways too.

Quantitative analysis of expression level of BCL2 and BAX genes in Hep-2 and HL-60 cells after treatment with etoposide.

Apoptotic cell death is a highly regulated process, which plays a crucial role in many biological events. The aim of the present research was to investigate the expression of the apoptosis related genes BCL2 and BAX in Hep-2 and HL60 cells. Apoptosis was induced in these cell lines during treatment with etoposide. The expression levels of BCL2 and BAX genes were measured after 6 h and 12 h of treatment by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. In Hep-2 cells the expression level of BCL2 significantly increased both 6 h and 12 h of treatment, whereas expression level of BAX didn't change. In HL-60 cells the expression level of BCL2 decreased after 6 h of treatment and expression of BAX increased both 6 h and 12 h of treatment with etoposide. Those findings show distinct reactions of Hep-2 and HL-60 cells to etoposide treatment and different upregulation or downregulation of apoptosis-related genes BCL2 and BAX.