SERUM ACUTE-PHASE PROTEINS IN BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS (TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS) AND CORRELATION WITH COMMONLY UTILIZED INFLAMMATORY INDICES.

Acute-phase proteins (APP) are the foundation to the innate immune response and valuable biomarkers that increase with inflammation, infection, neoplasia, stress, and trauma.2,4,16 Little is known about the acute-phase response in cetaceans and if these proteins can be used for health monitoring in individuals and free-ranging populations. The purpose of this study was to characterize serum concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA), as well as electrophoretic profiles of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in free-ranging (n = 33) and professional care (n = 27) settings. Results were correlated to commonly utilized inflammatory indices including erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), fibrinogen, total white blood cell count (WBC), and absolute neutrophil count. SAA levels, measured with a dolphin-specific enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), were significantly higher (P = 0.05) in free-ranging dolphins (mean = 4.26; SE = 1.12) when compared with those under professional care (mean = 1.82; SE = 0.45). For dolphins under professional care, a statistically significant correlation was identified between ESR and Hp (P < 0.001; r = 0.69), ESR and SAA (P < 0.001; r = 0.67), fibrinogen and Hp (P = 0.001; r = 0.58), and fibrinogen and SAA (P = 0.002; r = 0.56). In addition, there was a significant correlation between WBC and SAA (P = 0.01; r = 0.38) and absolute neutrophil count and SAA (P = 0.04; r = 0.32). There were no significant correlations between study variables observed in free-ranging dolphins. The variable correlation of APPs with commonly utilized inflammatory indices demonstrates that these proteins are independent measures of inflammation with unique sensitivity, specificity, and timeline of expression. The results of this study contribute to improved health monitoring of dolphins and have the potential to assist in identification of compromised health.

Analgesic Efficacy of Tramadol Compared With Meloxicam in Ducks (Cairina moschata domestica) Evaluated by Ground-Reactive Forces.

The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of tramadol and meloxicam in an induced, temporary arthritis model in ducks as assessed by ground-reactive forces measured by a pressure-sensitive walkway (PSW) system. Twelve ducks (Cairina moschata domestica) were randomly separated into 3 equal groups of 4 birds each: water control, tramadol treatment, and meloxicam treatment. Baseline measurements were collected by having all ducks walk along a 3-m-long PSW in a custom-built corral before anesthesia and induction of arthritis. Arthritis was induced in all groups through injection, under anesthesia, of a 3% monosodium urate (MSU) solution into the intertarsal joint. One hour after MSU injection, birds were orally gavage fed 1 mL of tap water (control), tramadol (30 mg/kg), or meloxicam (1 mg/kg). After treatments, all ducks were reevaluated on the PSW at 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, and 24 hours post-MSU injection. The difference in maximum force was significantly greater in the control group than in both the tramadol- (P = .006) and meloxicam-treated (P = .03) individuals. Post hoc comparisons revealed differences between control and treated birds occurred only at the 3- and 4-hour time points after administration. No differences were found in the absolute difference in maximum force between tramadol- and meloxicam-treated birds at any time point (P > .05). Results of this study support the hypothesis that tramadol (30 mg/kg PO) and meloxicam (1 mg/kg PO) improve certain objective variables in an induced arthritis model in ducks. Our findings also support studies in other avian species that determined that both tramadol and meloxicam are effective analgesic drugs in some birds.

EFFECTS OF OXYGEN AND ISOFLURANE ANESTHESIA ON HEMOLYMPH GAS ANALYSIS AND RIGHTING REFLEX OF ASIAN FOREST (HETEROMETRUS LONGIMANUS) AND DICTATOR SCORPIONS (PANDINUS DICTATOR).

Large arachnids are commonly managed under professional care, and anesthesia is occasionally required for physical examination and diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Anesthetic responses and hemolymph gas analysis have been studied previously in spiders, but scorpions have yet to be investigated. This study measured hemolymph gas values with an i-STAT point of care blood gas analyzer in healthy adult Asian forest scorpions (Heterometrus longimanus = HL, n = 8) and dictator scorpions (Pandinus dictator = PD, n = 12) breathing: 1) room air (RA), 2) 100% oxygen for 10 min in a chamber (OX), and 3) 5% isoflurane and oxygen (ISO) in a chamber until induction or loss of righting reflex. All scorpions recovered without complications, and there were no cartridge failures. Analysis of hemolymph gas values revealed that pH was lower in OX compared with RA and ISO and was lower in PD compared with HL scorpions. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide did not differ between inhaled gases but was higher in PD compared with HL. The partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) was higher in ISO compared with OX, and both were higher than when breathing RA. Despite a lack of species difference in pO2, PD had a more dramatic increase in pO2 in ISO compared with HL (significant species and inhalant interaction). PD had a significantly shorter induction time than HL, but recovery time (return of righting reflex) did not differ between species. Subjectively, HL exhibited rough inductions compared with PD, characterized by violent whole-body and tail movements. The unexpected increase in pO2 in ISO compared with OX, along with the species-specific differences and anesthetic effects, emphasizes the unique respiratory physiology of scorpions and demonstrates that further species-specific studies of anesthetics are warranted.

VENOUS BLOOD GAS AND SELECTED BIOCHEMICAL VALUES FROM AWAKE AND ANESTHETIZED WHITE-BELLIED PANGOLINS ( PHATAGINUS TRICUSPIS).

Pangolins are one of the most-trafficked endangered species and are rare in zoologic collections. Blood gas and select biochemical analysis was performed on nine African white-bellied tree pangolins ( Phataginus tricuspis). Paired blood samples were collected from the ventral tail vasculature prior to (T1) and after 10 min (T2) of sevoflurane anesthesia, and selected blood gas and biochemical parameters were measured using a portable blood gas analyzer. Median (min-max) values for corrected venous blood were pH = 7.372 (7.207-7.529) at T1 and 7.278 (7.124-7.418) at T2. Corrected values were PCO2 = 51.7 (29.6-69.0) mmHg at T1 and 58.431 (38.1-90.8) mmHg at T2. Clinicians should be aware that this species may hypoventilate while anesthetized with sevoflurane and develop a respiratory acidosis. Concomitant administration of respiratory depressants could compound this effect in a species where oro-tracheal intubation has not been described.

Comparison of the Sedative Effects of Alfaxalone and Butorphanol-Midazolam Administered Intramuscularly in Budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus).

Intramuscular (IM) administration of either alfaxalone or butorphanol with midazolam was evaluated for sedation and effects on heart and respiratory rates in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Twenty adult budgerigars were randomly assigned to receive 1 of 2 treatments: alfaxalone at 15 mg/kg IM or butorphanol and midazolam at 2.5 mg/kg IM and 1.25 mg/kg IM, respectively. Baseline heart and respiratory rates and sedation score were collected and, after injection, time to initial effects and initial recumbency were recorded. Five minutes after injection, birds were assessed for a righting reflex, and, if absent, response to noxious stimulus was assessed by hemostat clamp on the first digit. Birds then underwent a standardized diagnostic evaluation of radiographs, jugular venipuncture, and physical examination. At the end of the physical examination, a sedation score was assigned, and birds were placed in dorsal recumbency for recovery. Times from injection to initial arousal, final recumbency, standing, and full recovery were recorded. Although time to onset of sedation was the same between groups, alfaxalone produced a shorter (P = .04) and more consistent duration of sedation (mean ± SD: 27.5 ± 5.9 minutes) compared with butorphanol-midazolam (72.0 ± 56.9 minutes). Only 3 of 10 birds receiving butorphanol-midazolam were recumbent by 5 minutes compared with 10 of 10 birds receiving alfaxalone. Radiographs were successfully obtained in 9 of 10 and 7 of 10 birds administered alfaxalone and butorphanol-midazolam, respectively. No adverse effects were observed in any bird. Intramuscular alfaxalone produces safe, effective, and reliable sedation in budgerigars and is a more consistent and shorter duration alternative to intramuscular butorphanol-midazolam.

Comparison of 3 Methods for Preventing Perianesthetic Hypothermia in Callimicos (Callimico goeldii).

Perianesthetic hypothermia is one of the most common complications in veterinary anesthesia, especially in small patients with a large body surface area to mass ratio. During anesthesia, body heat can be lost through 4 mechanisms-radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation-but anesthetists frequently address only one mechanism at a time. Here we sought to evaluate 3 methods of preventing perianesthetic hypothermia in callimicos (Callimico goeldii). In our experience, these small NHP routinely become hypothermic under even brief inhalant anesthesia. To address multiple routes of heat loss, animals received 1 of 3 treatments: 1) placement of a reflective blanket over the patient to limit radiative heat loss to the surrounding environment; 2) placement of a reflective blanket and use of a heated anesthetic circuit, which warmed the inspired air to 104 °F (40 °C), and 3) placement under the patient of a forced-air warming blanket set at 109.4 °F (43 °C). Sources of radiative heat loss were assessed by using infrared thermography. Each animal was anesthetized with isoflurane and maintained in sternal recumbency in a temperature-controlled room (65 °F; 18.3 °C); esophageal core body temperature was monitored every 5 min for a total of 30 min. The rate of heat loss did not differ between the use of a reflective blanket with or without a heated anesthetic circuit. Animals provided the forced-air warming blanket experienced a slight increase in average body temperature. According to these findings, an underbody warm-air blanket provided the best protection against hypothermia for callimicos in sternal recumbency.

DISSEMINATED OPHIDIOMYCES OPHIODIICOLA INFECTION IN A CAPTIVE EASTERN MASSASAUGA (SISTRURUS CATENATUS CATENATUS).

An adult, captive-born eastern massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus catenatus) was examined for a subcutaneous abscess and fistula cranial to the vent. The wound improved initially with lavage and systemic antibiotic therapy, but multiple, scattered, small subcutaneous nodules later developed over the ventrum and lateral aspects of the body. Examination of fine needle aspirates from these nodules revealed granulomatous inflammation and fungal elements morphologically consistent with Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola. The animal died before antifungal therapy could be implemented. At necropsy, fungal granulomas were also present in the kidneys, liver, lung, air sac, ovary, and spleen. This case report describes an atypical presentation of systemic ophidiomycosis in a captive-born snake.

BEST-PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR FIELD-BASED SURGERY AND ANESTHESIA OF FREE-RANGING WILDLIFE. I. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA.

Field anesthesia is often necessary for both invasive and noninvasive procedures on wild animals. We describe basic principles of safe anesthetic delivery, monitoring, and recovery for application in procedures involving free-ranging wildlife. For invasive procedures, the potential for immediate and lasting pain must be addressed and appropriate analgesia provided. In situations where the minimum standard of safe anesthesia and effective analgesia cannot be provided, the investigator and approving bodies should rigorously evaluate the risk to the patient against the value of the data obtained. This document is intended to serve as a resource for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees, biologists, veterinarians, and other researchers planning projects that involve free-ranging wildlife in field conditions.

BEST-PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR FIELD-BASED SURGERY AND ANESTHESIA ON FREE-RANGING WILDLIFE. II. SURGERY.

The principles of surgical asepsis apply to field surgeries with few exceptions. The minimum level for performance of surgeries in the field on free-ranging animals should be the same as for domestic animals undergoing surgery in animal hospitals. Surgeries in the field are typically done as part of research and management projects and usually involve a combination of biologists and veterinarians with the possibility of conflicts in scientific cultures. This article outlines a minimum standard of care for field surgeries and will serve as a resource for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees and biologists and veterinarians planning projects that involve surgeries on free-ranging wildlife in field conditions.

HYPERCALCEMIA AND METASTATIC MINERALIZATION INVOLVING FOOTPADS IN ROCK HYRAXES (PROCAVIA CAPENSIS).

Three rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) maintained in a zoological collection had chronic hypercalcemia and azotemia. In addition, all animals displayed signs of lameness due to footpad lesions that were histologically characterized as marked metastatic mineralization with granulomatous inflammation, reminiscent of calcinosis circumscripta. Although the animals were managed with aggressive fluid therapy, calciuresis, and dietary modification, all were eventually humanely euthanized due to the severity of their footpad lesions and/or progression of renal disease. Metastatic mineralization was also noted in other soft tissues among the three cases, including the stomach, colon, lung, vascular wall, ovary, and kidney. Varying degrees of interstitial nephritis were confirmed on postmortem examination, and in the absence of other causes for hypercalcemia, metastatic mineralization was presumably the consequence renal dysfunction. The renal pathway is the primary mode of calcium excretion in the rock hyrax. In renal dysfunction, hypercalcemia may develop secondary to decreased calcium excretion. Footpad mineralization is an uncommon sequel to renal dysfunction in domestic animals but has not been reported in rock hyraxes. A retrospective review of mortality data in this collection revealed a notable prevalence of renal lesions, including two additional animals with metastatic mineralization and renal dysfunction. Expanding knowledge of renal diseases will further guide preventative and clinical measures, including screening for metastatic mineralization and therapeutic trials for management of hypercalcemia and calcium mineral deposition in the footpads and other soft tissues.

Use of an extracapsular stabilization technique to repair cruciate ligament ruptures in two avian species.

An extracapsular stabilization technique was used to repair cruciate ligament ruptures in a trumpeter hornbill (Bycanistes bucinator) and an African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). The hornbill demonstrated cranial drawer motion and severe rotational instability of the stifle from ruptures of the cranial and caudal cruciate ligaments and stifle joint capsule. The luxation was reduced, and the fibula was cranially transposed, in relation to the tibiotarsus, and anchored with 2 positive profile threaded acrylic pins. A lateral extracapsular stabilization was then performed. The African grey parrot had a traumatic stifle luxation, and an open reduction and a lateral extracapsular stabilization were performed. Both birds regained function of the affected leg by 1 month after surgery. Extracapsular stabilization allows motion of the stifle joint to be maintained during the postoperative recovery period, an advantage over rigid stabilization. Maintaining motion in the stifle joint facilitates physical therapy and can aid in full recovery after avian stifle injuries.

Mortalities associated with sepsis, parasitism, and disseminated round cell neoplasia in yellow-lipped sea kraits (Laticauda colubrina).

This case series describes multiple mortalities associated with sepsis, neoplasia, and endoparasitism in yellow-lipped sea kraits (Laticauda colubrina) at an exhibit aquarium. Over a 2-yr period, the facility kept 42 L colubrina, of which 38 died and 19 were suitable for necropsy and histopathology. The common clinical syndrome seen in these animals consisted of partial to compete anorexia, increased time spent "hauled-out" on land, intermittent regurgitation, chronic lethargy, and weight loss. Few animals died without premonitory signs. Nutritional support and treatment for presumptive parasitism and sepsis were unsuccessful. The mortality seen in this collection of sea kraits could be placed into three groups; one group of animals (n=9) died of sepsis secondary to necrotizing enteritis or pneumonia; one group (n=6) remained apparently healthy for over 1 yr and then died with multifocal granulomas and sepsis; and the last group (n=3) died as a result of multicentric lymphoid neoplasia with secondary sepsis. The unifying factor in the majority of these cases is the presence of septicemia as the proximate cause of death. Based on the clinical picture, it is presumed that an immunosuppressive event, such as transport, captivity stress, or possible concurrent viral infection, resulted in a septic event and death.

Secondary amyloidosis and renal failure in a captive California sea lion (Zalophus californianus).

A 16-yr-old, captive-born, female California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) was evaluated for intermittent lethargy, partial anorexia, and polydipsia of 2 wk duration. The animal was immobilized for physical examination. It was in thin body condition, with multifocal mucosal ulcerations over the caudal and ventral tongue. Blood was collected for hematology, serum chemistry, and leptospirosis serology. Serum chemistry revealed severe azotemia, mild hyperglycemia, and severe hyperphosphatemia. The animal went into cardiac arrest during recovery from anesthesia and died. On histopathology, abundant amorphous, finely fibrillar, eosinophilic material was deposited in the kidneys, and smaller amounts of the same material were found in the splenic and pancreatic vessels; these findings are consistent with systemic secondary amyloidosis. The animal also had chronic nephritis, which, coupled with renal amyloidosis, resulted in renal failure and death. Systemic amyloidosis should be considered as an additional differential diagnosis for renal failure in California sea lions.