Improving the Efficacy of Common Cancer Treatments via Targeted Therapeutics towards the Tumour and Its Microenvironment.

Cancer is defined as the uncontrolled proliferation of heterogeneous cell cultures in the body that develop abnormalities and mutations, leading to their resistance to many forms of treatment. Left untreated, these abnormal cell growths can lead to detrimental and even fatal complications for patients. Radiation therapy is involved in around 50% of cancer treatment workflows; however, it presents significant recurrence rates and normal tissue toxicity, given the inevitable deposition of the dose to the surrounding healthy tissue. Chemotherapy is another treatment modality with excessive normal tissue toxicity that significantly affects patients' quality of life. To improve the therapeutic efficacy of radiotherapy and chemotherapy, multiple conjunctive modalities have been proposed, which include the targeting of components of the tumour microenvironment inhibiting tumour spread and anti-therapeutic pathways, increasing the oxygen content within the tumour to revert the hypoxic nature of the malignancy, improving the local dose deposition with metal nanoparticles, and the restriction of the cell cycle within radiosensitive phases. The tumour microenvironment is largely responsible for inhibiting nanoparticle capture within the tumour itself and improving resistance to various forms of cancer therapy. In this review, we discuss the current literature surrounding the administration of molecular and nanoparticle therapeutics, their pharmacokinetics, and contrasting mechanisms of action. The review aims to demonstrate the advancements in the field of conjugated nanomaterials and radiotherapeutics targeting, inhibiting, or bypassing the tumour microenvironment to promote further research that can improve treatment outcomes and toxicity rates.

Utilizing two-dimensional monolayer and three-dimensional spheroids to enhance radiotherapeutic potential by combining gold nanoparticles and docetaxel.

Background: Much in vitro research on the applicability of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in cancer treatment has been focused on two-dimensional (2D) monolayer models. To improve this, we explored the effect of the combination of GNPs and docetaxel (DTX) with radiotherapy (RT) in a more complex three-dimensional (3D) spheroid that can better mimic a real tumour microenvironment. Methods: Two cell lines, prostate cancer LNCaP and cervical cancer HeLa, were grown in monolayer and spheroids. Cells were dosed with GNPs at a concentration of 10 µg/mL and with DTX at a dose that inhibited growth-rate by 50%. Samples were irradiated 24 h after drug dosing with 2 Gy, 5 Gy, or 10 Gy using a 6 MV beam. Monolayer cells had the DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) probed 24 h post-radiation, and cell proliferation observed over 7 days. Spheroid proliferation was monitored over 14 days along with spheroid volume measurements. Results: In DTX and GNP-treated monolayer samples, there is decreased survival after irradiation with 5 and 10 Gy of 16-24% and an increase in DSBs of 91.6-109.9%, compared to DTX. In spheroids, GNPs decreased the surviving cells by 10.54-15.61% compared to control, while GNPs and DTX decreased survival by 20.9-31.04%. There is reduced spheroid volume 14 days after treatment with the triple combination. Conclusions: Combining GNPs and DTX leads to a synergistic radiosensitization effect in spheroids, which can better mimic the tumour microenvironment. Testing treatment modalities with spheroids and RT may allow a quicker translation to the clinic. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12645-023-00231-5.

Utilizing Gold Nanoparticles as Prospective Radiosensitizers in 3D Radioresistant Pancreatic Co-Culture Model.

Pancreatic cancer stands among the deadliest forms of cancer, and the existing treatments fall short of providing adequate efficacy. Novel and more effective treatment approaches are urgently required to address this critical medical challenge. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the anti-cancer efficacy of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in combination with radiotherapy (RT). A 3D pancreatic cancer co-culture spheroid model of MIA PaCa-2 cancer cells and patient-derived cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF-98) was used. The spheroids were treated with GNPs (7.5 µg/mL) and 2 Gy of RT. The spheroids' cell viability was assessed through the CellTiter-Glo 3D assay, and an immunofluorescence assay was used to assess the DNA DSBs via the expression of the DNA damage marker 53BP1. Co-culture samples showed a 10.8% (p < 0.05) increase in proliferation and a 13.0% (p < 0.05) decrease in DNA DSB when compared to monoculture samples, However, they displayed a 175% (p < 0.001) increase in GNPs uptake when compared to monoculture spheroids. Using GNPs/RT, we were able to show a significant reduction of 6.2% (p < 0.05) in spheroid size and an increase of 14.3% (p < 0.05) in DNA DSB damage in co-culture samples. The combination of GNPs with RT demonstrated remarkable radiosensitization effects, representing a promising approach to enhance cancer treatment efficacy. These effects were particularly noteworthy in the more treatment-resistant co-culture spheroid model.

Lipid-Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery of Docetaxel Prodrug for Exploiting Full Potential of Gold Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer.

Current chemoradiation therapy suffers from normal tissue toxicity. Thus, we are proposing incorporating gold nanoparticles (GNPs) and docetaxel (DTX), as they have shown very promising synergetic radiosensitization effects. Here, we explored the effect of a DTX prodrug encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles (LNPDTX-P) on GNP uptake in pancreatic cancer models in vitro and in vivo. For the in vitro experiment, a pancreatic cancer cell line, MIA PaCa-2, was cultured and dosed with 1 nM GNPs and 45 nM free DTX or an equivalent dose of LNPDTX-P. For the in vivo experiment, MIA PaCa-2 cells were implanted subcutaneously in NRG mice, and the mice were dosed with 2 mg/kg of GNPs and 6 mg/kg of DTX or an equivalent dose of LNPDTX-P. The results show that LNPDTX-P-treated tumour samples had double the amount GNPs compared to control samples, both in vitro and in vivo. The results are very promising, as LNPDTX-P have superior targeting of tumour tissues compared to free DTX due to their nanosize and their ability to be functionalized. Because of their minimal toxicity to normal tissues, both GNPs and LNPDTX-P could be ideal radiosensitization candidates in radiotherapy and would produce very promising synergistic therapeutic outcomes.

Repurposing Antimalarial Pyronaridine as a DNA Repair Inhibitor to Exploit the Full Potential of Gold-Nanoparticle-Mediated Radiation Response.

Radiation therapy (RT) is frequently used to locally treat tumors. One of the major issues in RT is normal tissue toxicity; thus, it is necessary to limit dose escalation for enhanced local control in patients that have locally advanced tumors. Integrating radiosensitizing agents such as gold nanoparticles (GNPs) into RT has been shown to greatly increase the cure rate of solid tumors. The objective of this study was to explore the repurposing of an antimalarial drug, pyronaridine (PYD), as a DNA repair inhibitor to further enhance RT/GNP-induced DNA damage in cancerous cell lines. We were able to achieve inhibitory effects of DNA repair due to PYD at 500 nM concentration. Our results show a significant enhancement in DNA double-strand breaks of 42% in HeLa cells treated with PYD/GNP/RT in comparison to GNP/RT alone when irradiated with a dose of 2 Gy. Furthermore, there was a significant reduction in cellular proliferation for both HeLa and HCT-116 irradiated cells with the combined treatment of PYD/GNP/RT. Therefore, the emergence of promising novel concepts introduced in this study could lay the foundation for the transition of this treatment modality into clinical environments.

Enhancing nanoparticle accumulation in two dimensional, three dimensional, and xenograft mouse cancer cell models in the presence of docetaxel.

Recent clinical trials show docetaxel (DTX), given in conjunction with radiation therapy (RT) and androgen suppression, improves survival in high-risk prostate cancer. Addition of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) to this current DTX/RT protocol is expected to further improve therapeutic benefits remarkably. However, the foundation for the triple combination of RT, DTX, and GNPs must be elucidated to ensure quicker facilitation to the clinic. In this study, we explored the use of low concentrations of DTX combined with GNPs in two prostate cancer cell lines in a two-dimensional monolayer, a three-dimensional spheroid, and a mouse xenograft model. When used together, DTX and GNPs induced a nearly identical relative increase in uptake of gold in both the spheroid model and the mouse xenograft, which saw a 130% and 126% increase respectively after 24 h, showcasing the benefit of using spheroids as an in vitro model to better optimize in vivo experiments. Further, the benefits of using low concentrations of DTX combined with GNPs extended for over 72 h, allowing for less frequency in dosing when translating to the clinic. Overall, these results highlight the benefits of using DTX combined with GNPs and lays the groundwork for the translation of the triple combination of RT, GNPs, and DTX to the clinic.

Potential of Gold Nanoparticle in Current Radiotherapy Using a Co-Culture Model of Cancer Cells and Cancer Associated Fibroblast Cells.

Many cancer therapeutics are tested in vitro using only tumour cells. However, the tumour promoting effect of cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) within the tumour microenvironment (TME) is thought to reduce cancer therapeutics' efficacy. We have chosen pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) as our tumor model. Our goal is to create a co-culture of CAFs and tumour cells to model the interaction between cancer and stromal cells in the TME and allow for better testing of therapeutic combinations. To test the proposed co-culture model, a gold nanoparticle (GNP) mediated-radiation response was used. Cells were grown in co-culture with different ratios of CAFs to cancer cells. MIA PaCa-2 was used as our PDAC cancer cell line. Co-cultured cells were treated with 2 Gy of radiation following GNP incubation. DNA damage and cell proliferation were examined to assess the combined effect of radiation and GNPs. Cancer cells in co-culture exhibited up to a 23% decrease in DNA double strand breaks (DSB) and up to a 35% increase in proliferation compared to monocultures. GNP/Radiotherapy (RT) induced up to a 25% increase in DNA DSBs and up to a 15% decrease in proliferation compared to RT alone in both monocultured and co-cultured cells. The observed resistance in the co-culture system may be attributed to the role of CAFs in supporting cancer cells. Moreover, we were able to reduce the activity of CAFs using GNPs during radiation treatment. Indeed, CAFs internalize a significantly higher number of GNPs, which may have led to the reduction in their activity. One reason experimental therapeutics fail in clinical trials relates to limitations in the pre-clinical models that lack a true representation of the TME. We have demonstrated a co-culture platform to test GNP/RT in a clinically relevant environment.

Nanotechnology Driven Cancer Chemoradiation: Exploiting the Full Potential of Radiotherapy with a Unique Combination of Gold Nanoparticles and Bleomycin.

One of the major issues in current radiotherapy (RT) is the associated normal tissue toxicity. Enhancement of the RT effect with novel radiosensitizers can address this need. In this study, gold nanoparticles (GNPs) and bleomycin (BLM) were used as a unique combination of radiosensitizers. GNPs offer a two-fold promise as a delivery vehicle for BLM and as a radiosensitizing agent. In this study, GNPs were functionalized and complexed with BLM using a gold-thiol bond (denoted GNP-BLM). Our results show that there was a 40% and 10% decrease in cell growth with GNP-BLM vs. free BLM for the MIA PaCa-2 and PC-3 cell lines, respectively. Testing the GNP-BLM platform with RT showed an 84% and 13% reduction in cell growth in MIA PaCa-2 cells treated with GNP-BLM and GNPs, respectively. Similar results were seen with PC-3 cells. The efficacy of this approach was verified by mapping DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) as well. Therefore, this proposed incorporation of nanomedicine with RT is promising in achieving a significantly higher therapeutic ratio which is necessary to make a paradigm change to the current clinical approach.

Docetaxel-Mediated Uptake and Retention of Gold Nanoparticles in Tumor Cells and in Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts.

Due to recent advances in nanotechnology, the application of nanoparticles (NPs) in cancer therapy has become a leading area in cancer research. Despite the importance of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in creating an optimal niche for tumor cells to grow extensively, most of the work has been focused on tumor cells. Therefore, to effectively use NPs for therapeutic purposes, it is important to elucidate the extent of NP uptake and retention in tumor cells and CAFs. Three tumor cell lines and three CAF cell lines were studied using gold NPs (GNPs) as a model NP system. We found a seven-fold increase in NP uptake in CAFs compared to tumor cells. The retention percentage of NPs was three-fold higher in tumor cells as compared to CAFs. Furthermore, NP uptake and retention were significantly enhanced using a 50 nM concentration of docetaxel (DTX). NP uptake was improved by a factor of three in tumor cells and a factor of two in CAFs, while the retention of NPs was two-fold higher in tumor cells compared to CAFs, 72 h post-treatment with DTX. However, the quantity of NPs in CAFs was still three-fold higher compared to tumor cells. Our quantitative data were supported by qualitative imaging data. We believe that targeting of NPs in the presence of DTX is a very promising approach to accumulate a higher percentage of NPs and maintain a longer retention in both tumor cells and CAFs for achieving the full therapeutic potential of cancer nanotechnology.

Investigation of Nano-Bio Interactions within a Pancreatic Tumor Microenvironment for the Advancement of Nanomedicine in Cancer Treatment.

Pancreatic cancer is one of the deadliest types of cancer, with a five-year survival rate of only 10%. Nanotechnology offers a novel perspective to treat such deadly cancers through their incorporation into radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, the interaction of nanoparticles (NPs) with cancer cells and with other major cell types within the pancreatic tumor microenvironment (TME) is yet to be understood. Therefore, our goal is to shed light on the dynamics of NPs within a TME of pancreatic origin. In addition to cancer cells, normal fibroblasts (NFs) and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) were examined in this study due to their important yet opposite roles of suppressing tumor growth and promoting tumor growth, respectively. Gold nanoparticles were used as the model NP system due to their biocompatibility and physical and chemical proprieties, and their dynamics were studied both quantitatively and qualitatively in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro studies revealed that both cancer cells and CAFs take up 50% more NPs compared to NFs. Most importantly, they all managed to retain 70-80% of NPs over a 24-h time period. Uptake and retention of NPs within an in vivo environment was also consistent with in vitro results. This study shows the paradigm-changing potential of NPs to combat the disease.

Three-Dimensional Tumor Spheroids as a Tool for Reliable Investigation of Combined Gold Nanoparticle and Docetaxel Treatment.

Radiotherapy and chemotherapy are the gold standard for treating patients with cancer in the clinic but, despite modern advances, are limited by normal tissue toxicity. The use of nanomaterials, such as gold nanoparticles (GNPs), to improve radiosensitivity and act as drug delivery systems can mitigate toxicity while increasing deposited tumor dose. To expedite a quicker clinical translation, three-dimensional (3D) tumor spheroid models that can better approximate the tumor environment compared to a two-dimensional (2D) monolayer model have been used. We tested the uptake of 15 nm GNPs and 50 nm GNPs on a monolayer and on spheroids of two cancer cell lines, CAL-27 and HeLa, to evaluate the differences between a 2D and 3D model in similar conditions. The anticancer drug docetaxel (DTX) which can act as a radiosensitizer, was also utilized, informing future potential of GNP-mediated combined therapeutics. In the 2D monolayer model, the addition of DTX induced a small, non-significant increase of uptake of GNPs of between 13% and 24%, while in the 3D spheroid model, DTX increased uptake by between 47% and 186%, with CAL-27 having a much larger increase relative to HeLa. Further, the depth of penetration of 15 nm GNPs over 50 nm GNPs increased by 33% for CAL-27 spheroids and 17% for HeLa spheroids. These results highlight the necessity to optimize GNP treatment conditions in a more realistic tumor-life environment. A 3D spheroid model can capture important details, such as different packing densities from different cancer cell lines, which are absent from a simple 2D monolayer model.

Combining Gold Nanoparticles with Other Radiosensitizing Agents for Unlocking the Full Potential of Cancer Radiotherapy.

About half of cancer patients (50%) receive radiotherapy (RT) for the treatment of local tumors. However, one of the main obstacles in RT is the close proximity of adjacent organs at risk, resulting in treatment doses being limited by significant tissue toxicity, hence preventing the necessary dose escalation that would guarantee local control. Effective local cancer therapy is needed to avoid progression of tumors and to decrease the development of systemic metastases which may further increase the possibility of resection. In an effort to do so, radiosensitizing agents are introduced to further increase damage to the tumor while minimizing normal tissue toxicity. Cisplatin and docetaxel (DTX) are currently being used as radiation dose enhancers in RT. Recent research shows the potential of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) as a radiosensitizing agent. GNPs are biocompatible and have been tested in phase I clinical trials. The focus will be on exploring the effects of adding other radiosensitizing agents such as DTX and cisplatin to the GNP-RT platform. Therefore, a combined use of local radiosensitizing agents, such as GNPs, with currently available radiosensitizing drugs could make a significant impact in future RT. The ultimate goal is to develop treatments that have limited or nonexistent side effects to improve the quality of life of all cancer patients.

Advances in Gold Nanoparticle-Based Combined Cancer Therapy.

According to the global cancer observatory (GLOBOCAN), there are approximately 18 million new cancer cases per year worldwide. Cancer therapies are largely limited to surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. In radiotherapy and chemotherapy, the maximum tolerated dose is presently being used to treat cancer patients. The integrated development of innovative nanoparticle (NP) based approaches will be a key to address one of the main issues in both radiotherapy and chemotherapy: normal tissue toxicity. Among other inorganic NP systems, gold nanoparticle (GNP) based systems offer the means to further improve chemotherapy through controlled delivery of chemotherapeutics, while local radiotherapy dose can be enhanced by targeting the GNPs to the tumor. There have been over 20 nanotechnology-based therapeutic products approved for clinical use in the past two decades. Hence, the goal of this review is to understand what we have achieved so far and what else we can do to accelerate clinical use of GNP-based therapeutic platforms to minimize normal tissue toxicity while increasing the efficacy of the treatment. Nanomedicine will revolutionize future cancer treatment options and our ultimate goal should be to develop treatments that have minimum side effects, for improving the quality of life of all cancer patients.

Elucidating the fate of nanoparticles among key cell components of the tumor microenvironment for promoting cancer nanotechnology.

Successful integration of nanotechnology into the current paradigm of cancer therapy requires proper understanding of the interface between nanoparticles (NPs) and cancer cells, as well as other key components within the tumor microenvironment (TME), such as normal fibroblasts (FBs) and cancer-associated FBs (CAFs). So far, much focus has been on cancer cells, but FBs and CAFs also play a critical role: FBs suppress the tumor growth while CAFs promote it. It is not yet known how NPs interact with FBs and CAFs compared to cancer cells. Hence, our goal was to elucidate the extent of NP uptake, retention, and toxicity in cancer cells, FBs, and CAFs to further understand the fate of NPs in a real tumor-like environment. The outcome of this would guide designing of NP-based delivery systems to fully exploit the TME for a better therapeutic outcome. We used gold nanoparticles as our model NP system due to their numerous applications in cancer therapy, including radiotherapy and chemotherapy. A cervical cancer cell line, HeLa, and a triple-negative breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB-231 were chosen as cancer cell lines. For this study, a clinically feasible 0.2 nM concentration of GNPs was employed. According to our results, the cancer cells and CAFs had over 25- and 10-fold higher NP uptake per unit cell volume compared to FBs, respectively. Further, the cancer cells and CAFs had over 30% higher NP retention compared to FBs. There was no observed significant toxicity due to GNPs in all the cell lines studied. Higher uptake and retention of NPs in cancer cells and CAFs vs FBs is very important in promoting NP-based applications in cancer therapy. Our results show potential in modulating uptake and retention of GNPs among key components of TME, in an effort to develop NP-based strategies to suppress the tumor growth. An ideal NP-based platform would eradicate tumor cells, protect FBs, and deactivate CAFs. Therefore, this study lays a road map to exploit the TME for the advancement of "smart" nanomedicines that would constitute the next generation of cancer therapeutics.

Gold nanoparticle mediated radiation response among key cell components of the tumour microenvironment for the advancement of cancer nanotechnology.

One of the major issues in cancer radiotherapy (RT) is normal tissue toxicity. Introduction of radiosensitizers like gold nanoparticles (GNPs) into cancer cells to enhance the local RT dose has been tested successfully. However, it is not known how GNPs interact with other stromal cells such as normal fibroblasts (FBs) and cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs) within the tumour microenvironment. It is known that FBs turn into CAFs to promote tumour growth. Hence, we used FBs and CAFs along with HeLa (our cancer cell line) to evaluate the differences in GNP uptake and resulting radiation induced damage to elucidate the GNP-mediated therapeutic effect in RT. The CAFs had the largest uptake of the GNPs per cell, with on average 265% relative to HeLa while FBs had only 7.55% the uptake of HeLa and 2.87% the uptake of CAFs. This translated to increases in 53BP1-related DNA damage foci in CAFs (13.5%) and HeLa (9.8%) compared to FBs (8.8%) with RT treatment. This difference in DNA damage due to selective targeting of cancer associated cells over normal cells may allow GNPs to be an effective tool in future cancer RT to battle normal tissue toxicity while improving local RT dose to the tumour.

Modulation of the Microtubule Network for Optimization of Nanoparticle Dynamics for the Advancement of Cancer Nanomedicine.

Nanoparticles (NPs) have shown promise in both radiotherapy and chemotherapy. NPs are mainly transported along cellular microtubules (MTs). Docetaxel (DTX) is a commonly used chemotherapeutic drug that can manipulate the cellular MT network to maximize its clinical benefit. However, the effect of DTX on NP behaviour has not yet been fully elucidated. We used gold NPs of diameters 15 and 50 nm at a concentration of 0.2 nM to investigate the size dependence of NP behaviour. Meanwhile, DTX concentrations of 0, 10 and 50 nM were used to uphold clinical relevance. Our study reveals that a concentration of 50 nM DTX increased NP uptake by ~50% and their retention by ~90% compared to cells treated with 0 and 10 nM DTX. Smaller NPs had a 20-fold higher uptake in cells treated with 50 nM DTX vs. 0 and 10 nM DTX. With the treatment of 50 nm DTX, the cells became more spherical in shape, and NPs were redistributed closer to the nucleus. A significant increase in NP uptake and retention along with their intracellular distribution closer to the nucleus with 50 nM DTX could be exploited to target a higher dose to the most important target, the nucleus in both radiotherapy and chemotherapy.

Roadmap to Clinical Use of Gold Nanoparticles for Radiation Sensitization.

The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in interest in the use of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) as radiation sensitizers for radiation therapy. This interest was initially driven by their strong absorption of ionizing radiation and the resulting ability to increase dose deposited within target volumes even at relatively low concentrations. These early observations are supported by extensive experimental validation, showing GNPs' efficacy at sensitizing tumors in both in vitro and in vivo systems to a range of types of ionizing radiation, including kilovoltage and megavoltage X rays as well as charged particles. Despite this experimental validation, there has been limited translation of GNP-mediated radiation sensitization to a clinical setting. One of the key challenges in this area is the wide range of experimental systems that have been investigated, spanning a range of particle sizes, shapes, and preparations. As a result, mechanisms of uptake and radiation sensitization have remained difficult to clearly identify. This has proven a significant impediment to the identification of optimal GNP formulations which strike a balance among their radiation sensitizing properties, their specificity to the tumors, their biocompatibility, and their imageability in vivo. This white paper reviews the current state of knowledge in each of the areas concerning the use of GNPs as radiosensitizers, and outlines the steps which will be required to advance GNP-enhanced radiation therapy from their current pre-clinical setting to clinical trials and eventual routine usage.

Nuclear Targeting of Gold Nanoparticles for Improved Therapeutics.

Nanomedicine is an exponentially growing field, and gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in particular are extensively used in research due to their abilities as anti-cancer drug carriers for chemotherapy and as dose enhancers in radiotherapy. Most GNP research in the past involved a system where GNP localization was in the cytoplasm of the cell. However, it is predicted that therapy response can be enhanced if GNPs can be effectively targeted into the nucleus. With nuclear targeting, there is a possibility in producing additional free radicals in response to irradiation within the nucleus. This can cause more damage to the DNA of cancer cells. In this review article, we discuss the successful NP-based platforms available for nuclear targeting. In addition, we also present the possible mechanisms of nuclear targeting in detail followed by its applications in cancer therapy.

Colloidal Gold-Mediated Delivery of Bleomycin for Improved Outcome in Chemotherapy.

Nanoparticles (NPs) can be used to overcome the side effects of poor distribution of anticancer drugs. Among other NPs, colloidal gold nanoparticles (GNPs) offer the possibility of transporting major quantities of drugs due to their large surface-to-volume ratio. This is while confining these anticancer drugs as closely as possible to their biological targets through passive and active targeting, thus ensuring limited harmful systemic distribution. In this study, we chose to use bleomycin (BLM) as the anticancer drug due to its limited therapeutic efficiency (harmful side effects). BLM was conjugated onto GNPs through a thiol bond. The effectiveness of the chemotherapeutic drug, BLM, is observed by visualizing DNA double strand breaks and by calculating the survival fraction. The action of the drug (where the drug takes effect) is known to be in the nucleus, and our experiments have shown that some of the GNPs carrying BLM were present in the nucleus. The use of GNPs to deliver BLM increased the delivery and therapeutic efficacy of the drug. Having a better control over delivery of anticancer drugs using GNPs will establish a more successful NP-based platform for a combined therapeutic approach. This is due to the fact that GNPs can also be used as radiation dose enhancers in cancer research.

Size-Dependent Gold Nanoparticle Interaction at Nano-Micro Interface Using Both Monolayer and Multilayer (Tissue-Like) Cell Models.

Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are emerging as a novel tool to improve existing cancer therapeutics. GNPs are being used as radiation dose enhancers in radiation therapy as well as anticancer drugs carriers in chemotherapy. However, the success of GNP-based therapeutics depends on their ability to penetrate tumor tissue. GNPs of 20 and 50 nm diameters were used to elucidate the effects of size on the GNP interaction with tumor cells at monolayer and multilayer level. At monolayer cell level, smaller NPs had a lower uptake compared to larger NPs at monolayer cell level. However, the order was reversed at tissue-like multilayer level. The smaller NPs penetrated better compared to larger NPs in tissue-like materials. Based on our study using tissue-like materials, we can predict that the smaller NPs are better for future therapeutics due to their greater penetration in tumor tissue once leaving the leaky blood vessels. In this study, tissue-like multilayer cellular structures (MLCs) were grown to model the post-vascular tumor environment. The MLCs exhibited a much more extensive extracellular matrix than monolayer cell cultures. The MLC model can be used to optimize the nano-micro interface at tissue level before moving into animal models. This would accelerate the use of NPs in future cancer therapeutics.