Contact-Free Co-Culture Model for the Study of Innate Immune Cell Activation During Respiratory Virus Infection.

The early interactions between the nasal epithelial layer and the innate immune cells during viral infections remains an under-explored area. The significance of innate immunity signaling in viral infections has increased substantially as patients with respiratory infections who exhibit high innate T cell activation show a better disease outcome. Hence, dissecting these early innate immune interactions allows the elucidation of the processes that govern them and may facilitate the development of potential therapeutic targets and strategies for dampening or even preventing early progression of viral infections. This protocol details a versatile model that can be used to study early crosstalk, interactions, and activation of innate immune cells from factors secreted by virally infected airway epithelial cells. Using an H3N2 influenza virus (A/Aichi/2/1968) as the representative virus model, innate cell activation of co-cultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) has been analyzed using flow cytometry to investigate the subsets of cells that are activated by the soluble factors released from the epithelium in response to the viral infection. The results demonstrate the gating strategy for differentiating the subsets of cells and reveal the clear differences between the activated populations of PBMCs and their crosstalk with the control and infected epithelium. The activated subsets can then be further analyzed to determine their functions as well as molecular changes specific to the cells. Findings from such a crosstalk investigation may uncover factors that are important for the activation of vital innate cell populations, which are beneficial in controlling and suppressing the progression of viral infection. Furthermore, these factors can be universally applied to different viral diseases, especially to newly emerging viruses, to dampen the impact of such viruses when they first circulate in naïve human populations.

Enteroviral 3C protease activates the human NLRP1 inflammasome in airway epithelia.

Immune sensor proteins are critical to the function of the human innate immune system. The full repertoire of cognate triggers for human immune sensors is not fully understood. Here, we report that human NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein 1 (NLRP1) is activated by 3C proteases (3Cpros) of enteroviruses, such as human rhinovirus (HRV). 3Cpros directly cleave human NLRP1 at a single site between Glu130 and Gly131 This cleavage triggers N-glycine-mediated degradation of the autoinhibitory NLRP1 N-terminal fragment via the cullinZER1/ZYG11B complex, which liberates the activating C-terminal fragment. Infection of primary human airway epithelial cells by live human HRV triggers NLRP1-dependent inflammasome activation and interleukin-18 secretion. Our findings establish 3Cpros as a pathogen-derived trigger for the human NLRP1 inflammasome and suggest that NLRP1 may contribute to inflammatory diseases of the airway.

Human genome-wide RNAi screen reveals host factors required for enterovirus 71 replication.

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is a neurotropic enterovirus without antivirals or vaccine, and its host-pathogen interactions remain poorly understood. Here we use a human genome-wide RNAi screen to identify 256 host factors involved in EV71 replication in human rhabdomyosarcoma cells. Enrichment analyses reveal overrepresentation in processes like mitotic cell cycle and transcriptional regulation. We have carried out orthogonal experiments to characterize the roles of selected factors involved in cell cycle regulation and endoplasmatic reticulum-associated degradation. We demonstrate nuclear egress of CDK6 in EV71 infected cells, and identify CDK6 and AURKB as resistance factors. NGLY1, which co-localizes with EV71 replication complexes at the endoplasmatic reticulum, supports EV71 replication. We confirm importance of these factors for EV71 replication in a human neuronal cell line and for coxsackievirus A16 infection. A small molecule inhibitor of NGLY1 reduces EV71 replication. This study provides a comprehensive map of EV71 host factors and reveals potential antiviral targets.

Angiopoietin-like 4 Increases Pulmonary Tissue Leakiness and Damage during Influenza Pneumonia.

Excessive host inflammatory responses negatively impact disease outcomes in respiratory infection. Host-pathogen interactions during the infective phase of influenza are well studied, but little is known about the host's response during the repair stage. Here, we show that influenza infection stimulated the expression of angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) via a direct IL6-STAT3-mediated mechanism. ANGPTL4 enhanced pulmonary tissue leakiness and exacerbated inflammation-induced lung damage. Treatment of infected mice with neutralizing anti-ANGPTL4 antibodies significantly accelerated lung recovery and improved lung tissue integrity. ANGPTL4-deficient mice also showed reduced lung damage and recovered faster from influenza infection when compared to their wild-type counterparts. Retrospective examination of human lung biopsy specimens from infection-induced pneumonia with tissue damage showed elevated expression of ANGPTL4 when compared to normal lung samples. These observations underscore the important role that ANGPTL4 plays in lung infection and damage and may facilitate future therapeutic strategies for the treatment of influenza pneumonia.

A monoclonal antibody binds to threonine 49 in the non-structural 1 protein of influenza A virus and interferes with its ability to modulate viral replication.

The emergence of resistant influenza A viruses highlights the continuous requirement of new antiviral drugs that can treat the viral infection. Non-structural 1 (NS1) protein, an indispensable component for efficient virus replication, can be used as a potential target for generating new antiviral agents. Here, we study the interaction of 2H6 monoclonal antibody with NS1 protein and also determine whether influenza virus replication can be inhibited by blocking NS1. The 2H6-antigen binding fragment (Fab) forms a multimeric complex with the NS1 RNA-binding domain (RBD). T49, a residue which forms a direct hydrogen bond with double stranded RNA, in NS1 protein was found to be critical for its interaction with 2H6 antibody. NS1(RBD) has high affinity to 2H6 with KD of 43.5±4.24nM whereas NS1(RBD)-T49A has more than 250 times lower affinity towards 2H6. Interestingly, the intracellular expression of 2H6-single-chain variable fragment (scFv) in mammalian cells caused a reduction in viral growth and the M1 viral protein level was significantly reduced in 2H6-scFv transfected cells in comparison to vector transfected cells at 12h post infection. These results indicate that the tight binding of 2H6 to NS1 could lead to reduction in viral replication and release of progeny virus. In future, 2H6 antibody in combination with other neutralizing antibodies can be used to increase the potency of viral inhibition.

Beta-actin variant is necessary for Enterovirus 71 replication.

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is one of the main etiological agents of the Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD) and has been known to cause fatal neurological complications such as herpangina, aseptic meningitis, poliomyelitis-like paralysis and encephalitis. EV71 is endemic in the Asia-Pacific region and causes occasional epidemics. In order to better understand EV71 infection, we compared the proteome between EV71-susceptible and EV71-resistant human Rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cell line. We found significant differences in the ß-actin variants between the EV71-susceptible RD cells and EV71-resistant RD cells, suggesting that ß-actin, in association with other proteins such as annexin 2 is required in vesicular transport of EV71. This finding further support our previous study that actin potentially plays a role in pathogenesis and the establishment of the disease in HFMD.

Characterization of a monoclonal antibody against the 3D polymerase of enterovirus 71 and its use for the detection of human enterovirus A infection.

Over the last decade, frequent epidemic outbreaks of hand, foot and mouth disease have been observed in the Asia-Pacific region. Hand, foot and mouth disease is caused by different viruses from the enterovirus family, mainly coxsackievirus A16 and enterovirus 71 (EV71) from the human enterovirus A family. Severe disease and neurological complications are associated more often with EV71 infection, and can lead occasionally to fatal brain stem encephalitis in young children. The rapid progression and high mortality of severe hand, foot and mouth disease makes the direct detection of antigens early in infection essential. The best method for virus detection is the use of specific monoclonal antibodies. The generation and characterization of a monoclonal antibody specific for the 3D polymerase of human enterovirus A and the development of a virus detection dot blot assay are described. A recombinant 3CD protein from EV71 C4 strain was used as an immunogen to generate monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). Screening of hybridoma cells led to the isolation of monoclonal antibody 4B12 of the immunoglobulin IgG1 isotype. MAb 4B12 recognizes the linear epitope DFEQALFS close to the active site of the 3D polymerase, corresponding to amino acid positions 53-60 of 3D and 1784-1791 of enterovirus 71 polyprotein. The presence of 3D polymerase and its precursor 3CD proteinase in purified virus particles was confirmed. MAb 4B12 was used successfully to detect all enterovirus 71 subgenotypes in a denaturing dot blot assay with a sensitivity of 10 pg of 3D protein and 10(4) tissue culture infective dose of virus particles.

Comparative proteome analyses of host protein expression in response to Enterovirus 71 and Coxsackievirus A16 infections.

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and Coxsackievirus A16 (CA16) are the main etiological agents of Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD), a common disease among children and had caused several outbreaks in the Asia-Pacific region. Although being genetically close to each other, EV71 infection can cause serious and fatal neurological complications like encephalitis, myocarditis, acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) and aseptic meningitis, but not in CA16 infections. In this study, the cellular response of host cells infected with EV71 and CA16 was characterized and compared by 2-dimensional proteome analyses. A total of 16 proteins were identified to be differentially expressed in EV71 and CA16-infected host cells. Desmin and HSP27, both indirectly regulate the contraction of muscle cells, were significantly downregulated as a result of EV71 infection, suggesting a link to acute flaccid paralysis. The ability of EV71 to evade host immune system may be due to the downregulation of MHC-I synthesis proteins like protein disulfide isomerase A3 and calreticulin. Proteins such as nucleophosmin, nuclear ribonucleoprotein C, and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 were all downregulated significantly, suggesting the rapid shutting down of host translation machinery by EV71. These findings provide insight into the nature of high virulent EV71 infection as compared to CA16.

Enhanced potency and efficacy of 29-mer shRNAs in inhibition of Enterovirus 71.

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is the main causative agent of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) in young children. It has been associated with severe neurological complications and has caused significant mortalities in large-scale outbreaks in Asia. In this study, we demonstrated an enhanced silencing of EV71 through the use of chemically synthesized 29-mer shRNAs. The 29-mer shRNAs were designed to target three highly conserved regions of EV71 genome. Transfection of rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells with the 29-mer shRNAs significantly inhibited EV71 replication in a dose-dependent manner as demonstrated by reduction of viral RNA, VP1 protein and plaque forming units. The inhibitory effects were more potent and were achieved at 10-fold lower concentrations when compared to 19-mer siRNAs reported previously [Sim, A.C.N., Luhur, A., Tan, T.M.C., Chow, V.T.K., Poh, C.L., 2005. RNA interference against Enterovirus 71 infection. Virology 341, 72-79]. The viral inhibitory effects lasted 72 h post-infection and there was no adverse off-target silencing effect. Gene silencing by 29-mer shRNAs targeted at the 3D(pol) region (sh-3D) was the most effective, achieving 91% viral inhibition. Further evaluation found that no enhanced inhibitory effects were observed when sh-3D was cotransfected with each of the other two candidates. This study showed an improvement in triggering RNAi using the more potent 29-mer shRNAs, indicating its therapeutic potential against EV71.

RNA interference against enterovirus 71 infection.

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is a highly infectious major causative agent of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) which could lead to severe neurological complications. There is currently no effective therapy against EV71. In this study, RNA interference (RNAi) is employed as a therapeutic approach for specific viral inhibition. Various regions of the EV71 genome were targeted for inhibition by chemically synthesized siRNAs. Transfection of rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells with siRNA targeting the 3'UTR, 2C, 3C, or 3D region significantly alleviated cytopathic effects of EV71. The inhibitory effect was dosage-dependent with a corresponding decrease in viral RNA, viral proteins, and plaque formations by EV71. Viral inhibition of siRNA transfected RD cells was still evident after 48 h. In addition, no significant adverse off-target silencing effects were observed. These results demonstrated the potential and feasibility for the use of siRNA as an antiviral therapy for EV71 infections.

Recombinant non-structural 1 (NS1) protein of dengue-2 virus interacts with human STAT3beta protein.

A combination of yeast two-hybrid library screening, co-immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrated that dengue-2 virus non-structural 1 (NS1) protein can interact with an N-terminally truncated form of human STAT3beta (DeltaN40-STAT3beta) protein. The NS1 protein interacted with the activated STAT3beta protein in vesicle-like structures in the cell cytoplasm. In addition, transfection of dendritic cells with plasmid expressing NS1 protein also resulted in significant induction of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Since the STAT3beta protein is an acute-phase response factor, its interaction with NS1 protein may influence the pathological changes observed in dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome.

Differential expression of metallothionein isoforms in nasopharyngeal cancer and inhibition of cell growth by antisense down-regulation of metallothionein-2A.

Biological functions of metallothionein (MT) proteins which are encoded by 10 functional MT isoforms, include cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. The aim of this study was to compare the relative expression levels of functional MT mRNA isoforms in three nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) cell lines with laryngeal carcinoma and embryonic lung cell lines by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. All the NPC lines exhibited expression of the MT-2A transcript, whereas the MT-1E isoform was expressed in well differentiated HK1 and moderately differentiated TW01 but not in poorly differentiated CNE2 cells. Interestingly, TW01 and HEp-2 laryngeal cancer cells exhibited similar expression profiles with both MT-1E and MT-2A isoforms being detected at levels below those of MRC-5 embryonic lung fibroblasts. Functional studies of the MT-2A isoform by down-regulating expression of this gene with MT-2A antisense oligonucleotide in CNE2 cells, showed a reduction in cell viability and proliferation. These findings may provide valuable information in the search for novel therapeutic strategies against NPC.

Differential expression of metallothionein 1 and 2 isoforms in breast cancer lines with different invasive potential: identification of a novel nonsilent metallothionein-1H mutant variant.

Metallothionein (MT), a low-molecular weight protein with pleiotropic functions, is believed to play an important role in tumorigenesis. The aim of this study was to compare the expression of functional MT-1 and MT-2 mRNA isoforms in five breast cancer cell lines ranging from noninvasive MCF7 breast cancer cells to highly aggressive MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells together with breast myoepithelial cells in vitro by conventional semiquantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and quantitative real-time RT-PCR. The MT-2A isoform was observed to be differentially upregulated in the invasive phenotype. The MT-1E isoform was found to be present in estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231 and Hs578T) but not detectable in the estrogen receptor-positive cell lines (T47D, MCF7, and ZR75-1 cells). Only the myoepithelial cells exhibited the presence of the MT-1G transcript. Direct sequencing of the RT-PCR products revealed the occurrence of a variant MT-1H isoform with changes in amino acid residues in the protein sequence and notable differences in the predicted secondary protein structure. The observations in this study are relevant to the development of novel approaches to metastatic breast cancer disease, and may herald the search for novel MT mutants and the elucidation of their biological roles.