Unraveling Stereochemical Structure-Activity Relationships of Sesquiterpene Lactones for Inhibitory Effects on STAT3 Activation.

Sesquiterpene lactones, a class of natural compounds abundant in the Asteraceae family, have gained attention owing to their diverse biological activities, and particularly their anti-proliferative effects on human cancer cells. In this study, we systematically investigated the structure-activity relationship of ten sesquiterpene lactones with the aim of elucidating the structural determinants for the STAT3 inhibition governing their anti-proliferative effects. Our findings revealed a significant correlation between the STAT3 inhibitory activity and the anti-proliferative effects of sesquiterpene lactones in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines. Among the compounds tested, alantolactone and isoalantolactone emerged as the most potent STAT3 inhibitors, highlighting their potential as candidates for anticancer drug development. Through protein-ligand docking studies, we revealed the structural basis of STAT3 inhibition by sesquiterpene lactones, emphasizing the critical role of hydrogen-bonding interactions with key residues, including Arg609, Ser611, Glu612, and Ser613, in the SH2 domain of STAT3. Furthermore, our conformational analysis revealed the decisive role of the torsion angle within the geometry-optimized structures of sesquiterpene lactones in their STAT3 inhibitory activity (R=0.80, p<0.01). These findings not only provide preclinical evidence for sesquiterpene lactones as promising phytomedicines against diseases associated with abnormal STAT3 activation, but also highlight the importance of stereochemical aspects in their activity.

Isoalantolactone Suppresses Glycolysis and Resensitizes Cisplatin-Based Chemotherapy in Cisplatin-Resistant Ovarian Cancer Cells.

Cisplatin is a potent chemotherapeutic drug for ovarian cancer (OC) treatment. However, its efficacy is significantly limited due to the development of cisplatin resistance. Although the acquisition of cisplatin resistance is a complex process involving various molecular alterations within cancer cells, the increased reliance of cisplatin-resistant cells on glycolysis has gained increasing attention. Isoalantolactone, a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Inula helenium L., possesses various pharmacological properties, including anticancer activity. In this study, isoalantolactone was investigated as a potential glycolysis inhibitor to overcome cisplatin resistance in OC. Isoalantolactone effectively targeted key glycolytic enzymes (e.g., lactate dehydrogenase A, phosphofructokinase liver type, and hexokinase 2), reducing glucose consumption and lactate production in cisplatin-resistant OC cells (specifically A2780 and SNU-8). Importantly, it also sensitized these cells to cisplatin-induced apoptosis. Isoalantolactone-cisplatin treatment regulated mitogen-activated protein kinase and AKT pathways more effectively in cisplatin-resistant cells than individual treatments. In vivo studies using cisplatin-sensitive and resistant OC xenograft models revealed that isoalantolactone, either alone or in combination with cisplatin, significantly suppressed tumor growth in cisplatin-resistant tumors. These findings highlight the potential of isoalantolactone as a novel glycolysis inhibitor for treating cisplatin-resistant OC. By targeting the dysregulated glycolytic pathway, isoalantolactone offers a promising approach to overcoming drug resistance and enhancing the efficacy of cisplatin-based therapies.

Evaluation of the potential herb-drug interaction between Bojungikki-tang and PD-L1 immunotherapy in a syngeneic mouse model.

Atezolizumab (a PD-L1 inhibitor) has shown remarkable efficacy and tolerability in various cancer types. Despite its efficacy and safety, atezolizumab monotherapy has limitations, such as acquired resistance and adverse events. Bojungikki-tang (BJIKT) is an herbal decoction widely prescribed in Asian countries and used to treat cancer-related symptoms including fatigue, appetite loss, gastrointestinal disorders, and other side effects from cancer therapy. Due to its immunomodulatory effects, Bojungikki-tang has been investigated as a combined treatment with anticancer agents. We evaluated the potential drug-drug interaction (DDI) between Bojungikki-tang and the anti-PD-L1 antibody based on the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines. In the study, we conducted an in vivo drug-drug interaction study using a syngeneic mouse model of CMT-167 in C57BL/6. We then determined the antibody concentrations to evaluate the pharmacokinetic (PK) drug-drug interaction and measured variable biomarkers related to therapeutic efficacy and immune response. The pharmacodynamic (PD) drug-drug interaction study investigated changes in response between anti-PD-L1 antibody monotherapy and combination therapy. Using the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data, we conducted a statistical analysis to assess drug-drug interaction potential. In the presence of Bojungikki-tang, the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the anti-PD-L1 antibody were not changed. This study suggested that combination treatment with Bojungikki-tang and atezolizumab is a safe treatment option for non-small cell lung cancer. Clinical studies are warranted to confirm this finding.

Safety and Efficacy of Bojungikki-Tang in Advanced NSCLC Patients Receiving Treatment with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Protocol for a Multicenter, Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Pilot Trial.

Cancer immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is a major treatment option for several types of cancer, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The proposed study aims to investigate the safety and efficacy of Bojungikki-tang (BJIKT) therapy (an herbal medicine) in patients with advanced NSCLC treated with ICIs. This multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study will be performed at three academic hospitals. Thirty patients with advanced NSCLC, undergoing atezolizumab monotherapy as second- and subsequent-line treatment, will be recruited and randomly assigned to either BJIKT treatment (atezolizumab + BJIKT) or placebo (atezolizumab + placebo). The primary and secondary outcomes are the incidence of adverse events (AEs), including immune- related AEs (irAEs) and non-immune-related AEs (non-irAEs); and early termination rate, withdrawal period, symptom improvement of fatigue, and skeletal muscle loss, respectively. The exploratory outcomes are patient objective response rate and immune profile. This is an ongoing trial. Recruitment started on 25 March 2022 and is expected to be completed by 30 June 2023. This study will provide basic evidence for the safety profiles, including irAEs, of herbal medicine in patients with advanced NSCLC treated with ICIs.

The Sesquiterpene Lactone-Rich Fraction of Inula helenium L. Enhances the Antitumor Effect of Anti-PD-1 Antibody in Colorectal Cancer: Integrative Phytochemical, Transcriptomic, and Experimental Analyses.

Treatment strategies combining immune checkpoint inhibitors with sesquiterpene lactones have attracted much attention as a promising approach for cancer treatment. We systemically analyzed gene expression profiles of cells in response to two major sesquiterpene lactones, alantolactone and isoalantolactone, and determined whether the sesquiterpene lactone-rich fraction of Inula helenium L. (SFIH) enhances the antitumor effect of anti-PD-1 antibody in MC38 colorectal cancer-bearing mice. Gene expression and pathway analysis using RNA sequencing data were used to identify the SFIH-driven combined activity with anti-PD-1 antibody. The results showed that SFIH significantly enhanced the antitumor effect of anti-PD-1 antibody by reducing tumor growth and increasing the survival time of mice. Specifically, SFIH exhibited antitumor activity when combined with anti-PD-1 antibody, and the effects were further enhanced compared with monotherapy. An analysis of immune cells indicated that combination treatment with SFIH and anti-PD-1 antibody significantly increased the proportion of CD8+ T cells. Moreover, combination treatment enhanced antitumor immunity by decreasing the population of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and increasing the number of M1-like macrophages. Pathway enrichment analysis revealed that combination therapy activated immune-related pathways to a greater extent than monotherapy. In conclusion, our integrative analysis demonstrates that SFIH enhances the response of murine tumors to anti-PD-1 antibody. These findings provide insight into developing integrative therapeutics and molecular data for the use of natural products as an adjunct treatment for colorectal cancer.

EGFR-phosphorylated GDH1 harmonizes with RSK2 to drive CREB activation and tumor metastasis in EGFR-activated lung cancer.

The cancer metastasis process involves dysregulated oncogenic kinase signaling, but how this orchestrates metabolic networks and signal cascades to promote metastasis is largely unclear. Here we report that inhibition of glutamate dehydrogenase 1 (GDH1) and ribosomal S6 kinase 2 (RSK2) synergistically attenuates cell invasion, anoikis resistance, and immune escape in lung cancer and more evidently in tumors harboring epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-activating or EGFR inhibitor-resistant mutations. Mechanistically, GDH1 is activated by EGFR through phosphorylation at tyrosine 135 and, together with RSK2, enhances the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) activity via CaMKIV signaling, thereby promoting metastasis. Co-targeting RSK2 and GDH1 leads to enhanced intratumoral CD8 T cell infiltration. Moreover, GDH1, RSK2, and CREB phosphorylation positively correlate with EGFR mutation and activation in lung cancer patient tumors. Our findings reveal a crosstalk between kinase, metabolic, and transcription machinery in metastasis and offer an alternative combinatorial therapeutic strategy to target metastatic cancers with activated EGFRs that are often EGFR therapy resistant.

A Comprehensive Analysis and Anti-Cancer Activities of Quercetin in ROS-Mediated Cancer and Cancer Stem Cells.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce carcinogenesis by causing genetic mutations, activating oncogenes, and increasing oxidative stress, all of which affect cell proliferation, survival, and apoptosis. When compared to normal cells, cancer cells have higher levels of ROS, and they are responsible for the maintenance of the cancer phenotype; this unique feature in cancer cells may, therefore, be exploited for targeted therapy. Quercetin (QC), a plant-derived bioflavonoid, is known for its ROS scavenging properties and was recently discovered to have various antitumor properties in a variety of solid tumors. Adaptive stress responses may be induced by persistent ROS stress, allowing cancer cells to survive with high levels of ROS while maintaining cellular viability. However, large amounts of ROS make cancer cells extremely susceptible to quercetin, one of the most available dietary flavonoids. Because of the molecular and metabolic distinctions between malignant and normal cells, targeting ROS metabolism might help overcome medication resistance and achieve therapeutic selectivity while having little or no effect on normal cells. The powerful bioactivity and modulatory role of quercetin has prompted extensive research into the chemical, which has identified a number of pathways that potentially work together to prevent cancer, alongside, QC has a great number of evidences to use as a therapeutic agent in cancer stem cells. This current study has broadly demonstrated the function-mechanistic relationship of quercetin and how it regulates ROS generation to kill cancer and cancer stem cells. Here, we have revealed the regulation and production of ROS in normal cells and cancer cells with a certain signaling mechanism. We demonstrated the specific molecular mechanisms of quercetin including MAPK/ERK1/2, p53, JAK/STAT and TRAIL, AMPKα1/ASK1/p38, RAGE/PI3K/AKT/mTOR axis, HMGB1 and NF-κB, Nrf2-induced signaling pathways and certain cell cycle arrest in cancer cell death, and how they regulate the specific cancer signaling pathways as long-searched cancer therapeutics.

Bojungikki-Tang Improves Response to PD-L1 Immunotherapy by Regulating the Tumor Microenvironment in MC38 Tumor-Bearing Mice.

Immune checkpoint blockage targeting PD-L1 has led to breakthroughs in cancer treatment. Although anti-PD-L1-based immunotherapy has been approved as standard therapy in various cancer types, its therapeutic efficacy in most colorectal cancers (CRC) is still limited due to the low response to immunotherapy. Therefore, combining treatment with herbal medicines could be an alternative approach for treating CRC to overcome this limitation. Bojungikki-Tang (BJIKT), a herbal formula used in traditional Chinese medicine, clinically improves the quality of life for cancer patients and has been associated with antitumor and immune-modulating activities. However, the regulatory effect of BJIKT on the immune response in the tumor microenvironment remains largely uninvestigated. In this study, we verified the inhibitory effect of BJIKT on tumor growth and investigated the regulatory effect of combination therapy with BJIKT and anti-PD-L1 on antitumor immune responses in an MC38 CRC-bearing C57BL/6 mouse model. Immune profiling analysis by flow cytometry was used to characterize the exact cell types contributing to anticancer activities. Combination treatment with BJIKT and anti-PD-L1 therapy significantly suppressed tumor growth in MC38-bearing mice and increased the proportion of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells in tumor tissues. Furthermore, BJIKT suppressed the population of myeloid-derived suppressor cells, suggesting that this combination treatment effectively regulates the immunological function of T-cells by improving the tumor microenvironment. The herbal formula BJIKT can be a novel therapeutic option for improving anti-PD-L1-based immunotherapy in patients with CRC.

Novel Biomarkers in Lung Cancer and Chronic Lung Diseases: From the Systematic Perspective of Yin-Yang Balance.

New approaches to personalized medicine are made possible by the discovery of biomarkers [...].

Modulation of the Gut Microbiota by Sihocheonggan-Tang Shapes the Immune Responses of Atopic Dermatitis.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by complex immune dysregulation and closely related to the gut microbiome. The present study investigated the microbiome-mediated effect of Sihocheonggan-Tang (SHCGT) on AD-like symptoms induced by 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) in BALB/c mice. DNCB was applied regularly to the ear and dorsal skin of BALB/c mice, and SHCGT was administered orally daily for 2 weeks. The composition of the gut microbiota was analyzed using 16S rRNA sequencing, and the effect of gut microbiome-derived metabolites, specifically short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), was evaluated in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)- and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)-treated HaCaT cells. SHCGT alleviated DNCB-induced symptoms of AD and the immune response to AD by decreasing the plasma immunoglobulin E level and splenic interleukin-4, interleukin-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ levels. The gut microbiome composition and the damaged gut epithelial barrier in mice with AD were also significantly altered by SHCGT, and the reduced SCFA levels therein were elevated. We found that SFCAs directly inhibited the mRNA expression of IL-6 and ICAM-1 in TNF-α- and INF-γ-treated HaCaT cells. The finding that SHCGT regulates the gut microbiome and improves DNCB-induced AD in mice suggests that this herbal medicine has therapeutic potential in patients with AD.

Hsp90B enhances MAST1-mediated cisplatin resistance by protecting MAST1 from proteosomal degradation.

Microtubule-associated serine/threonine kinase 1 (MAST1) is a central driver of cisplatin resistance in human cancers. However, the molecular mechanism regulating MAST1 levels in cisplatin-resistant tumors is unknown. Through a proteomics screen, we identified the heat shock protein 90 B (hsp90B) chaperone as a direct MAST1 binding partner essential for its stabilization. Targeting hsp90B sensitized cancer cells to cisplatin predominantly through MAST1 destabilization. Mechanistically, interaction of hsp90B with MAST1 blocked ubiquitination of MAST1 at lysines 317 and 545 by the E3 ubiquitin ligase CHIP and prevented proteasomal degradation. The hsp90B-MAST1-CHIP signaling axis and its relationship with cisplatin response were clinically validated in cancer patients. Furthermore, combined treatment with a hsp90 inhibitor and the MAST1 inhibitor lestaurtinib further abrogated MAST1 activity and consequently enhanced cisplatin-induced tumor growth arrest in a patient-derived xenograft model. Our study not only uncovers the regulatory mechanism of MAST1 in tumors but also suggests a promising combinatorial therapy to overcome cisplatin resistance in human cancers.

Inositol-triphosphate 3-kinase B confers cisplatin resistance by regulating NOX4-dependent redox balance.

How altered metabolism contributes to chemotherapy resistance in cancer cells remains unclear. Through a metabolism-related kinome RNAi screen, we identified inositol-trisphosphate 3-kinase B (ITPKB) as a critical enzyme that contributes to cisplatin-resistant tumor growth. We demonstrated that inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate (IP4), the product of ITPKB, plays a critical role in redox homeostasis upon cisplatin exposure by reducing cisplatin-induced ROS through inhibition of a ROS-generating enzyme, NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4), which promotes cisplatin-resistant tumor growth. Mechanistically, we identified that IP4 competes with the NOX4 cofactor NADPH for binding and consequently inhibits NOX4. Targeting ITPKB with shRNA or its small-molecule inhibitor resulted in attenuation of NOX4 activity, imbalanced redox status, and sensitized cancer cells to cisplatin treatment in patient-derived xenografts. Our findings provide insight into the crosstalk between kinase-mediated metabolic regulation and platinum-based chemotherapy resistance in human cancers. Our study also suggests a distinctive signaling function of IP4 that regulates NOX4. Furthermore, pharmaceutical inhibition of ITPKB displayed synergistic attenuation of tumor growth with cisplatin, suggesting ITPKB as a promising synthetic lethal target for cancer therapeutic intervention to overcome cisplatin resistance.

Novel Galiellalactone Analogues Can Target STAT3 Phosphorylation and Cause Apoptosis in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer.

Aberrant activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) has been documented in various malignancies including triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs). The STAT3 transcription factor can regulate the different important hallmarks of tumor cells, and thus, targeting it can be a potential strategy for treating TNBC, for which only limited therapeutic options are available. In this study, we analyzed the possible effect of (-)-galiellalactone and its novel analogues, SG-1709 and SG-1721, and determined whether these agents exerted their antineoplastic effects by suppressing the STAT3 signaling pathway in TNBC cells. The two analogues, SG-1709 and SG-1721, inhibited both constitutive as well as inducible STAT3 phosphorylation at tyrosine 705 more effectively than (-)-galiellalactone, which indicates that the analogues are more potent STAT3 blockers. Moreover, SG-1721 not only inhibited nuclear translocation and DNA binding of STAT3 but also induced apoptosis, and decreased expression of diverse oncogenic proteins. Interestingly, SG-1721 also exhibited an enhanced apoptotic effect when combined with radiotherapy. Furthermore, in vivo administration of SG-1721 significantly attenuated breast xenograft tumor growth via decreasing levels of p-STAT3. Therefore, SG-1721 may be a promising candidate for further application as a pharmacological agent that can target STAT3 protein in treating TNBC.

Igalan induces detoxifying enzymes mediated by the Nrf2 pathway in HepG2 cells.

Igalan is one of the sesquiterpene lactones found in Inula helenium L., which is used as the traditional medicine to treat inflammatory diseases. However, the pharmacological effects of igalan have not been characterized. In this study, we isolated igalan from I. helenium L. and evaluated the effects of igalan on signaling pathways and expression of target genes in HepG2 cells. Igalan activated the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway by increasing the inactive form of GSK3ß, the phosphorylated form of AKT, and the nuclear accumulation of Nrf2. Thus, target genes of Nrf2 such as HO-1 and NQO1 increased in HepG2 cells. Moreover, igalan inhibited the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-induced nuclear factor-κB activation and suppressed the expression of its target genes, including TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-8 in HepG2 cells. Our results indicate the potential of igalan as an activator of cellular defense mechanisms and a detoxifying agent.

Sesquiterpene lactones-enriched fraction of Inula helenium L. induces apoptosis through inhibition of signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 signaling pathway in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells.

Inula helenium L., commonly known as Elecampane, has been extensively used for many countries in the folk medicine. Its root is a rich source of sesquiterpene lactones, which possess various pharmacological activities. To develop the phytomedicine including sesquiterpene lactones, we prepared hexane fraction from I. helenium (HFIH) and examined the inhibitory effect of HFIH on signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3) activation in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. Additionally, detailed chemical investigation was done to pinpoint the most active sesquiterpene lactones responsible for its anticancer activity. HFIH selectively suppressed STAT3 phosphorylation at tyrosine 705, not affecting its upstream kinases. HFIH downregulated the expression of STAT3 target genes including cyclin D1 , c-myc, and bcl-2 and induced caspase-mediated apoptosis. Moreover, sesquiterpene lactones of HFIH clearly suppressed STAT3 activation. The in vivo results further supported that HFIH inhibits the growth of human breast xenograft tumors. Our results suggest that HFIH possesses potential anticancer activity, which is mainly mediated through STAT3 signaling pathway. These findings provide the potential of HFIH as a promising phytomedicine for the treatment and prevention of triple-negative breast cancer.

MAST1 Drives Cisplatin Resistance in Human Cancers by Rewiring cRaf-Independent MEK Activation.

Platinum-based chemotherapeutics represent a mainstay of cancer therapy, but resistance limits their curative potential. Through a kinome RNAi screen, we identified microtubule-associated serine/threonine kinase 1 (MAST1) as a main driver of cisplatin resistance in human cancers. Mechanistically, cisplatin but no other DNA-damaging agents inhibit the MAPK pathway by dissociating cRaf from MEK1, while MAST1 replaces cRaf to reactivate the MAPK pathway in a cRaf-independent manner. We show clinical evidence that expression of MAST1, both initial and cisplatin-induced, contributes to platinum resistance and worse clinical outcome. Targeting MAST1 with lestaurtinib, a recently identified MAST1 inhibitor, restores cisplatin sensitivity, leading to the synergistic attenuation of cancer cell proliferation and tumor growth in human cancer cells and patient-derived xenograft models.

Bioassay-guided isolation of cantharidin from blister beetles and its anticancer activity through inhibition of epidermal growth factor receptor-mediated STAT3 and Akt pathways.

Cantharidin is an active constituent of blister beetles (cantharides) which have traditionally been used for cancer treatment. Several studies have shown that cantharidin has a cytotoxic effect on various cancer cells. However, few studies have examined the effect of cantharidin on signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling in cancer. In this study, we isolated cantharidin from cantharides by bioassay-guided fractionation and examined its inhibitory effect on STAT3 activation in human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells, expressing high level of phosphorylated STAT3. Cantharides were extracted with acetonitrile and separated into hexane, methylene chloride/acetonitrile, and water fractions. The methylene chloride/acetonitrile fraction was further separated into four fractions by preparative high-throughput high-performance liquid chromatography. Cantharidin was then isolated from the third fraction by countercurrent chromatography and structurally determined by comparing nuclear magnetic resonance and high-resolution mass spectrometry data. Cantharidin inhibited STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation in MDA-MB-231 cells. Cantharidin suppressed epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced STAT3 and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways through inhibition of EGF receptor phosphorylation. Moreover, cantharidin reduced cell proliferation and induced apoptosis with downregulation of STAT3 target genes, such as Bcl-2, COX-2, and cyclin D1. Taken together, this study provides evidence that cantharidin may be a potential therapeutic agent for triple-negative breast cancer by reducing EGFR-mediated STAT3 and Akt signaling pathways.

The PLAG1-GDH1 Axis Promotes Anoikis Resistance and Tumor Metastasis through CamKK2-AMPK Signaling in LKB1-Deficient Lung Cancer.

Loss of LKB1 is associated with increased metastasis and poor prognosis in lung cancer, but the development of targeted agents is in its infancy. Here we report that a glutaminolytic enzyme, glutamate dehydrogenase 1 (GDH1), upregulated upon detachment via pleomorphic adenoma gene 1 (PLAG1), provides anti-anoikis and pro-metastatic signals in LKB1-deficient lung cancer. Mechanistically, the GDH1 product α-KG activates CamKK2 by enhancing its substrate AMPK binding, which contributes to energy production that confers anoikis resistance. The effect of GDH1 on AMPK is evident in LKB1-deficient lung cancer, where AMPK activation predominantly depends on CamKK2. Targeting GDH1 with R162 attenuated tumor metastasis in patient-derived xenograft model and correlation studies in lung cancer patients further validated the clinical relevance of our finding. Our study provides insight into the molecular mechanism by which GDH1-mediated metabolic reprogramming of glutaminolysis mediates lung cancer metastasis and offers a therapeutic strategy for patients with LKB1-deficient lung cancer.

Capillarisin attenuates exercise-induced muscle damage through MAPK and NF-κB signaling.

BACKGROUND: Intense exercise has the potential to increase oxidative stress and cause muscle damage. Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) are two major regulators of gene transcription in response to oxidative stress in the skeletal muscle. Pure capillarisin (CAP) isolated from Artemisia capillaris Thunberg is known to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE: We hypothesized CAP to exert antioxidant activity against exercise-induced oxidative stress and suppress acute inflammatory response. We aimed to investigate skeletal muscle recovery after intense exercise with or without CAP administration. STUDY DESIGN: Eccentric exercise was conducted to induce muscle damage (C57BL6 mice, 13m/min for 60min downhill running). Mice were divided into four groups (n=6): the rested control, exercised, and exercised with CAP treatments (20mg/kg and 80mg/kg, ip injection 24h prior to exercise) groups. METHOD: After the intense exercise, mice were sacrificed immediately, and after 24h the gastrocnemius muscles and blood plasma were collected for further study. The DCFH-DA and TBARS assays were conducted for anti-oxidative capacity. Muscle damage markers, creatinine phosphate kinase (CPK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were investigated at plasma level. Muscle data were examined with H&E staining and microscopy. MAPK and NF-κB pathway, chemokine and cytokine productions were confirmed by western blotting and RT-PCR. RESULTS: From DCFH-DA and TBARS assays, exercise increased the level of ROS production, but these changes were suppressed by CAP treatment. Exercise induced muscle damage by raising the levels of soluble muscle enzymes, such as CPK and LDH. However, this result was improved in CAP-treated groups at plasma level. Exercise activated MAPK (ERK 1/2 and JNK but not p38) and NF-κB (nuclear p50 and p65, and cytosolic p-IκBα) subunits at protein level but CAP attenuated these increase in a dose dependent manner. At the mRNA level, the chemokines CINC-1 and MCP-1, and cytokine IL-6 in gastrocnemius muscle were increased by exercise, whereas CAP suppressed these increase. CONCLUSION: Overall, our results indicate that CAP, as a single compound, can attenuate muscle damage by exerting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Thus, CAP is a potential candidate for the muscle protective agent in the future.

High body clearance and low oral bioavailability of alantolactone, isolated from Inula helenium, in rats: extensive hepatic metabolism and low stability in gastrointestinal fluids.

Alantolactone (ALA) is a major bioactive sesquiterpene lactone present in the roots of Inula helenium L. (Asteraceae) which has been used widely in traditional medicine against various diseases such as asthma, cancer and tuberculosis. The pharmacologic activities of alantolactone have been well characterized, yet information on the physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of alantolactone and their mechanistic elucidation are still limited. Thus, this study aims to investigate the oral absorption and disposition of alantolactone and their relevant mechanisms. Log P values of alantolactone ranged from 1.52 to 1.84, and alantolactone was unstable in biological samples such as plasma, urine, bile, rat liver microsomes (RLM) and simulated gastrointestinal fluids. The metabolic rate of alantolactone was markedly higher in rat liver homogenates than in the other tissue homogenates. A saturable and concentration-dependent metabolic rate profile of alantolactone was observed in RLM, and rat cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1 A, 2C, 2D and 3 A subfamilies were significantly involved in its hepatic metabolism. Based on the well-stirred model, the hepatic extraction ratio (HER) was estimated to be 0.890-0.933, classifying alantolactone as a drug with high HER. Moreover, high total body clearance (111 ± 41 ml/min/kg) and low oral bioavailability (0.323%) of alantolactone were observed in rats. Taken together, the present study demonstrates that the extensive hepatic metabolism, at least partially mediated by CYP, is primarily responsible for the high total body clearance of alantolactone, and that the low oral bioavailability of alantolactone could be attributed to its low stability in gastrointestinal fluids and a hepatic first-pass effect in rats. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.