Cell-free, Dendritic Cell-mimicking Extracellular Blebs for Molecularly Controlled Vaccination.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are prime targets for vaccination and immunotherapy. However, limited control over antigen presentation at a desired maturation status in these plastic materials remains a fundamental challenge in efficiently orchestrating a controlled immune response. DC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) can overcome some of these issues, but have significant production challenges. Herein, we employ a unique chemically-induced method for production of DC-derived extracellular blebs (DC-EBs) that overcome the barriers of DC and DC-derived EV vaccines. DC-EBs are molecular snapshots of DCs in time, cell-like particles with fixed stimulatory profiles for controlled immune signalling. DC-EBs were produced an order of magnitude more quickly and efficiently than conventional EVs and displayed stable structural integrity and antigen presentation compared to live DCs. Multi-omic analysis confirmed DC-EBs are majorly pure plasma membrane vesicles that are homogeneous at the single-vesicle level, critical for safe and effective vaccination. Immature vs. mature molecular profiles on DC-EBs exhibited molecularly modulated immune responses compared to live DCs, improving remission and survival of tumor-challenged mice via generation of antigen-specific T cells. For the first time, DC-EBs make their case for use in vaccines and for their potential in modulating other immune responses, potentially in combination with other immunotherapeutics.

Nanocomplexes of doxorubicin and DNA fragments for efficient and safe cancer chemotherapy.

Cancer-targeted therapy by a chemotherapeutic agent formulated in a nanoscale platform has been challenged by complex and inefficient manufacturing, low drug loading, difficult characterization, and marginally improved therapeutic efficacy. This study investigated facile-to-produce nanocomplexes of doxorubicin (DOX), a widely used cancer drug, and clinically approved DNA fragments that are extracted from a natural source. DOX was found to self-assemble DNA fragments into relatively monodispersed nanocomplexes with a diameter of ∼70 nm at 14.3% (w/w) drug loading by simple and scalable mixing. The resulting DOX/DNA nanocomplexes showed sustained DOX release, unlike overly stable Doxil®, cellular uptake via multiple endocytosis pathways, and high hematological and immunological compatibility. DOX/DNA nanocomplexes eradicated EL4 T lymphoma cells in a time-dependent manner, eventually surpassing free DOX. Extended circulation of DOX/DNA nanocomplexes, while avoiding off-target accumulation in the lung and being cleared from the liver, resulted in rapid accumulation in tumor and lowered cardio toxicity. Finally, tumor growth of EL4-challenged C57BL/6 mice (syngeneic model) and OPM2-challenged NSG mice (human xenograft model) were efficiently inhibited by DOX/DNA nanocomplexes with enhanced overall survival, in comparison with free DOX and Doxil®, especially upon repeated administrations. DOX/DNA nanocomplexes are a promising chemotherapeutics delivery platform for their ease of manufacturing, high biocompatibility, desired drug release and accumulation, efficient tumor eradication with improved safety, and further engineering versatility for extended therapeutic applications.

White adipocyte-targeted dual gene silencing of FABP4/5 for anti-obesity, anti-inflammation and reversal of insulin resistance: Efficacy and comparison of administration routes.

Obesity is a serious health problem with tremendous economic and social consequences, which is associated with metabolic diseases and cancer. Currently available anti-obesity drugs acting in the gastrointestinal tract, or the central nervous system have shown limited efficacy in the reduction of obesity, accompanied by severe side effects. Therefore, a novel therapeutic delivery targeting adipocytes and normalizing excess fat transport and accumulation is necessary to maximize efficacy and reduce side effects for long-term treatment. Fatty acid binding protein 4 (FABP4) is an adipokine that coordinates lipid transport in mature adipocyte and its inhibition in obesity model showed weight loss and normalized insulin response. Reduction of FABP4 level in adipocytes was compensated by fatty acid binding protein 5 (FABP5), which resulted in reduction of recovery of obesity and co-morbidities related to obesity by FABP4 knock-down alone. In this study, we developed a non-viral gene delivery system, sh (FABP4/5)/ATS9R, that silences FABP4 and FABP5 simultaneously with oligopeptide (ATS9R) that can selectively target mature adipocyte. For future clinical application to increase patient compliance, sh (FABP4/5)/ATS9R was administered subcutaneously and intraperitoneally to obese animal model and both routes demonstrated startling dual gene efficacy in visceral adipose tissues. Furthermore, dual gene silencing efficiently alleviated obesity, improved insulin sensitivity and restored hepatic metabolism in high fat diet-induced type 2 diabetes mouse model. Targeted-dual gene silencing of sh (FABP4/5)/ATS9R in adipose tissues demonstrated synergistic effects to overcome obesity and obesity-induced metabolic diseases and beneficial effects against liraglutide, providing a great potential for future translational research.

RNA interference-mediated suppression of TNF-α converting enzyme as an alternative anti-TNF-α therapy for rheumatoid arthritis.

Excessive tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is associated with the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Approximately 90% of patients with RA, who have inadequate response to methotrexate, follow anti-TNF-α therapy as the first-line immuno-treatment. However, ineffective long-term anti-TNF-α antibody cycling for 40% of non-responders to anti-TNF-α antibodies is costly and associated with various side effects, which needs alternative mechanism of action therapies. In the present study, a novel strategy to down-regulate TNF-α level was developed by using an alternative method of suppressing TNF-α converting enzyme (TACE), a transmembrane enzyme involved in cleaving and releasing bioactive soluble TNF-α. TACE suppression can be an effective remedy to block the production of soluble TNF-α, leading to an increased sensitivity to anti-TNF-α non-responders. A disease site-targeted RNA interference system was developed by forming non-viral complex between shRNA against TACE (shTACE) and bone resorption site-specific peptide carrier composed of aspartate repeating and arginine repeating sequences. The shTACE/peptide carrier complex alleviated arthritic symptoms in collagen induced arthritis (CIA) models by demonstrating enhanced anti-inflammatory and anti-osteoclastogenic effects. Similar results were obtained with human primary synovial cells and osteoclast precursor isolated from tissues and synovial fluids of RA patients. Taken together, the shTACE/targeting peptide complex provides a strong potential as an alternative anti-TNF-α therapeutic for RA treatment.

Enhanced oral bioavailability of an etoposide multiple nanoemulsion incorporating a deoxycholic acid derivative-lipid complex.

In this study, a system for oral delivery of etoposide (ETP) was designed to avoid the problems associated with low and variable bioavailability of a commercially available ETP emulsion comprised of polyethylene glycol, glycerol, and citric acid anhydrous. ETP was complexed with low-molecular-weight methylcellulose (ETP/LMC) and loaded into a water-in-oil-in-water multiple nanoemulsion to formulate an ETP/LMC-nanoemulsion (ELNE). To further enhance the oral bioavailability, an ionic complex formed by anionic lipid 1,2-didecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (sodium salt) and cationic N α-deoxycholyl-l-lysyl-methylester was incorporated into ELNE, yielding ELNE#7. As expected, ELNE#7 showed 4.07- and 2.25-fold increases in artificial membrane and Caco-2/HT29-MTX-E12 permeability (Papp ), respectively, resulting in 224% greater oral bioavailability compared with the commercially available ETP emulsion. In contrast, inhibition of clathrin- and caveola-mediated endocytosis, macropinocytosis, and bile acid transporters by chlorpromazine, genistein, amiloride, and actinomycin D in Caco-2/HT-29-MTX-E12 monolayers reduced the Papp by 45.0%, 20.5%, 28.8%, and 31.1%, respectively. These findings suggest that these routes play important roles in enhancing the oral absorption of ELNE#7. In addition, our mechanistic study suggested that P-glycoprotein did not have an inhibitory effect on the permeation of ELNE#7. Notably, ELNE#7 showed significantly enhanced toxicity in LLC and A549 cells compared with ETP-E. These observations support the improved oral absorption of ETP in ELNE#7, suggesting that it is a better alternative than ETP emulsion.

Enhanced antitumor efficacy of bile acid-lipid complex-anchored docetaxel nanoemulsion via oral metronomic scheduling.

In this study, a system for oral delivery of docetaxel (DTX) was prepared to enhance the oral absorption and anticancer efficacy of DTX via metronomic chemotherapy. DTX was complexed with low-molecular-weight methylcellulose (LMC) and loaded into a nanoemulsion (NE), yielding DTX/LMC-NE (DLNE). To further enhance the oral bioavailability, d-alpha-tocopherol polyethylene glycol succinate and sodium deoxycholate (DOCA) complexed with cationic lipid 1,2-dioleyl-3-trimethylammonium propane (DOTAP) (DOCA-DOTAP [DA-TAP] complex) was incorporated into DLNE, yielding the formulation DLNE#10. As expected, DLNE#10 showed 11.3- and 5.81-fold increases in artificial membrane (Pe) and Caco-2 permeability (Papp), respectively, resulting in 249% greater oral bioavailability, compared to free DTX. In contrast, inhibition of clathrin- and caveola-mediated endocytosis, macropinocytosis, and bile acid transporters by chlorpromazine, genistein, amiloride, and actinomycin D in the Caco-2 monolayer reduced the Papp by 55.3%, 44.2%, 35.9%, and 36.5%, respectively; these findings suggest that these routes play important roles in enhancing the oral absorption of DLNE#10. In addition, our mechanistic study suggested that P-glycoprotein (P-gp) did not have an inhibitory effect on the permeation of DLNE#10. Notably, the half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of DLNE#10 were 43.5% and 16.8% greater than those of Taxotere® in MCF-7 and 4T1 cells, respectively. Finally, the tumor inhibitory rates in 4T1 cell tumor-bearing mice after oral metronomic dosing of DLNE#10 (20 mg/kg DTX) were 5.02- and 1.65-fold greater than the rates in the untreated control group and intravenously injected DTX (10 mg/kg) group, respectively. These observations support the improved oral absorption and enhanced chemotherapeutic efficacy of DTX in DLNE#10 via metronomic chemotherapy, suggesting that it is a better alternative than intravenous Taxotere®.

Heme Oxygenase 1-Targeted Hybrid Nanoparticle for Chemo- and Immuno-Combination Therapy in Acute Myelogenous Leukemia.

Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) is a fatal blood cancer with high patient mortality. Daunorubicin and cytarabine are first-line chemotherapy for AML, with bone marrow transplantation in most cases. Recently, cancer immunotherapy has been challenged in AML and leukemia-niche myeloid cells are promising targets for the AML immunotherapy. Heme oxygenase 1 (HO1) is an antioxidative and cytoprotective enzyme inducing chemo-resistant AML and has been focused as an immune checkpoint molecule in tumor microenvironments. Herein, lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticle (hNP) is loaded with tin mesoporphyrin (SnMP), a HO1-inhibitor, and non-covalently modified with an engineered antibody for leukemic cell-targeted delivery. HO1-inhibiting T-hNP (T-hNP/SnMP) enhances chemo-sensitivity in human leukemia cells. In a human AML-bearing orthotopic mouse model, intravenously injected T-hNP not only actively targets to human leukemia cells but passively targets to CD11b+ myeloid cells in a bone marrow niche. The T-hNP/SnMP enhances the chemo-therapeutic effect of daunorubicin and boosts immune response by reprogramming bone marrow myeloid cells resulting from the recruitment of the monocyte-lineage and induction of inflammatory genes. The ex vivo study demonstrates an enhanced immune response of HO1-inhibited bone marrow CD11b+ myeloid cells against apoptotic leukemia cells. Collectively, HO1-inhibiting dual cell-targeted T-hNP/SnMP has a strong potential as a novel therapeutic in AML.

CD64-targeted HO-1 RNA interference enhances chemosensitivity in orthotopic model of acute myeloid leukemia and patient-derived bone marrow cells.

Acute myeloid leukemia is the most frequent and life-threatening blood cancer. The main treatment is chemotherapy, sometimes followed by stem cell transplant. Resistance to chemotherapy and hepatotoxicity of the CD33-targeted therapy require an alternative therapeutic strategy. Here, we report CD64-targeted RNA interference as a novel AML therapy, which was delivered by a recombinant fusion protein of CD64-binding antibody and nona-arginine (sR9). The sR9-mediated heme oxygenase-1 siRNA (siHO-1) delivery efficiently enhanced apoptotic response to daunorubicin of AML cells and AML-targeted HO-1 silencing improved chemotherapy and prolonged survival in orthotopic myeloid leukemia model. CD64 expression was verified and HO-1-silencing-mediated chemo-sensitization was also validated in leukemic blast cells originated from AML M4/M5 patient's bone marrow. Collectively, CD64-targeted RNA interference could be a promising strategy for AML therapy and AML-targeted HO-1 suppression is expected to improve the chemotherapeutic effect in future clinical trials.

Non-viral nano-immunotherapeutics targeting tumor microenvironmental immune cells.

The tumor microenvironmental immune cells (TMICs) consists of myeloid cells (tumor-associated macrophages, dendritic cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, etc.) and lymphocytes (T cells and B cells), all of which could be immunologically suppressed through their interactions with cancer cells. Immunological understanding of the tumor microenvironment (TME) has led to great success in the development of clinical cancer immunotherapeutic. The most advanced cancer immunotherapies are chimeric antigen receptor-modified T cells (CAR-T cells) and checkpoint inhibiting antibodies blocking CTLA4, PD-1 and PD-L1. However, many hurdles remain that should be addressed for improved therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects such as cytokine release syndrome and patient-death. In recent decades, nanoparticles have been demonstrated as an efficient drug delivery tool due to their ease of modification, biocompatibility and intrinsic tumor targeting effect, and also been applied for cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we briefly introduce the immunosuppressive functions of TMICs and review recent advances in the development of TMIC-targeted nanotherapeutics for cancer immunotherapy. Tumor-associated macrophage (TAM)-targeted systems have shown to deplete or repolarize macrophages to M1 state for anti-tumoral immune responses. Tumor-infiltrating T cell (TIT)-targeted strategies have provided the activation of effector T cells and suppression of regulatory T cells in tumor, overcoming the current hurdles of single regimen checkpoint inhibitors. Lastly, recent studies on dendritic cell-targeted mRNA vaccination are discussed and the future perspectives of nano-immunotherapeutic for next-generation of cancer immunotherapy is emphasized.

Surfactant-free solubilization and systemic delivery of anti-cancer drug using low molecular weight methylcellulose.

Docetaxel, an advanced taxoid, has been widely used as an anti-mitotic agent, but further augmentation of its properties is still required, including improvement in low aqueous solubility. Herein, we report the development of bio-eliminable low molecular weight methylcellulose-based surfactant-free injectable formulation for the delivery of docetaxel. Crude methylcellulose, a hydrophobically modified cellulose derivative, was hydrolyzed by an enzymatic degradation method to obtain low molecular weight methylcellulose (LMwMC). Docetaxel was successfully loaded in micelles with small particle sizes high drug loading and sustained release profile. The in vivo anti-cancer effects of intravenously injected nanoparticle systems in B16F10 melanoma xenograft mice were evaluated and demonstrated a significantly enhanced therapeutic effect with the docetaxel-LMwMC micellar aggregates compared to a commercially available docetaxel, Taxotere®. Surfactant-free solubilization of docetaxel could be a promising delivery method for effective insoluble drug delivery for anti-tumor efficacy.

Enhanced Systemic Anti-Angiogenic siVEGF Delivery Using PEGylated Oligo-d-arginine.

Angiogenesis mainly mediated by upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) provides a hallmark of rapidly proliferating tumor cells and an essential component of the tumor growth and microenvironment, making it a targetable process for antitumor therapy. RNA interference (RNAi) provides a very effective tool for developing antitumor therapies; however, its application to date has been hampered due to the lack of efficient small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery systems in vivo. Here, we report a polymeric gene carrier system based on PEGylation of a cationic cysteine-ended 9-mer arginine oligopeptide (CR9C), which provides effective siRNA systemic delivery and specifically suppresses VEGF (siVEGF). The PEG500-CR9C/siVEGF oligopeptoplex provided improved blood circulation, enhanced protection from serum proteases, reduced uptake in the liver and kidneys, enhanced tumor targeting, and down-regulated intratumoral VEGF level, which comprehensively resulted in improved antitumor efficacy without significant toxicity in vivo. PEG500-CR9C has a great potential for safe and efficient siRNA delivery with diverse applications.

Amelioration of atherosclerotic inflammation and plaques via endothelial adrenoceptor-targeted eNOS gene delivery using redox-sensitive polymer bearing l-arginine.

Endothelial dysfunction combined with inflammation leads to atherosclerosis. Endothelium-specific delivery of therapeutic agents at the cellular level-specifically in vivo-is still a difficult task for proper management of atherosclerosis. We designed a redox-sensitive poly(oligo-l-arginine) (rsPOLA) playing dual roles as an endothelium α-2 adrenoceptors(α-2ARs)-targeted gene carrier and as a substrate for endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). Overexpression of α-2ARs on atherosclerotic endothelial cells was confirmed and the eNOS/rsPOLA nanoplexes following systemic injection demonstrated to 1) enhance eNOS gene delivery into endothelial cells via α-2ARs/l-arginine specific binding, 2) increase intracellular level of nitric oxide, 3) suppress inflammatory response in endothelium and finally 4) reduce atherosclerotic plaque in a Ldlr-/- atherosclerotic mouse model. Among the tested nanoplexes [eNOS/rsPOLA, eNOS/{poly(oligo-d-arginine), rsPODA} and eNOS/(racemic mixture, rsRM)], eNOS/rsPOLA reduced atherosclerotic inflammation most effectively as we hypothesized. Current treatment strategy provides strong potential for further development of a gene therapeutic system to ameliorate inflammation and progressive atherosclerotic plaques.

Human CD64-targeted non-viral siRNA delivery system for blood monocyte gene modulation.

A subset of phagocytes including inflammatory monocytes in blood migrate and give rise to macrophages in inflammatory tissues which generated the idea that blood monocytes are the therapeutic targets for drug delivery. Fc gamma receptor I (CD64) is a membrane receptor for the Fc region of immunoglobulin G, primarily expressed on monocyte-lineage, and H22 a monoclonal antibody for human CD64 had shown rapid blood monocyte binding and occupation in clinical studies. Small interfering RNA-mediated gene silencing as a therapeutic has been proposed and is a promising strategy in terms of its "knock-down" ability on the target gene prior to translation. However, its instability and off-targeting effect must be overcome for success in clinical studies. In this study, we developed a non-viral delivery system composed of oligo-nona-arginine (9R) and anti-human CD64 single chain antibodies (H22) for human monocyte-specific siRNA delivery. A targeted and efficient siRNA delivery mediated by anti-CD64 scFv-9R was observed in CD64 positive human leukemia cells, THP-1. With primary human blood cells, anti-CD64 scFv-9R mediated gene silencing was quantitatively confirmed representing blood monocyte selective gene delivery. These results demonstrate the potential of anti-CD64 scFv-9R mediated siRNA delivery for the treatment of human inflammatory diseases via blood monocytes gene delivery.

Inhibition of cisplatin-resistance by RNA interference targeting metallothionein using reducible oligo-peptoplex.

Effective intracellular level of a platinum anti-cancer drug, cisplatin, following repeated injections can be decreased either by the active efflux via ATP pump or by interactions with glutathione and metallothionein. Cisplatin in cytoplasm preferably binds to cysteine-rich proteins such as glutathione and metallothionein (MT). Detoxification of cisplatin by intracellular thiol-containing proteins has been considered to be major hurdles to overcome. The short hairpin RNA targeting MT (shMT) was tested to down-regulate MT and recover cisplatin resistance. A reducible polymer, poly(oligo-d-arginine) (rPOA), formed stable complex with shMT and demonstrated superior transfection efficiency. Efficient transfection of shMT/rPOA oligo-peptoplexes was found to significantly inhibit MT over-expression, resulting in 45% decrease of cell viability compared to the cisplatin alone group. This decrease was mediated by the synergistic effect of shMT/rPOA oligo-peptoplex and cisplatin. Co-administration of shMT/rPOA oligo-peptoplex and cisplatin in in vivo tumor model showed noticeable tumor-suppressing effect by inducing reversal of cisplatin resistance following effective intracellular delivery of shMT by rPOA. Combination therapy through co-administration of shMT/rPOA oligo-peptoplex and cisplatin was found to effectively reverse cisplatin resistance by RNA interference and consequently improve anti-cancer activity of cisplatin.